Old Testament New Testament Gospel Books Canon (Christian canons) Apocrypha Apostles Church Creeds Kingdom New CovenantApologetics Baptism Christology Father Son Holy Spirit History of theology Salvation Trinity Ten Commandments. Sony VGN-SR39VN/S BatteryTimeline Mary Peter Paul Fathers Early Constantine the Great Ecumenical councils Missions East–West Schism Crusades Protestant Reformation

General topics[hide]Art Criticism Ecumenism Liturgical year Liturgy Music Other religions Prayer Sermon SymbolismChristianity (from the Greek: Χριστός, Khristos, "Christ", literally "anointed one") is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion[1] Sony VPCF13M1E/B Batterybased on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings.[2] Adherents of the Christian faith are known as Christians.[3]

Christians generally believe Jesus is the Son of God, God having become human and the saviour of humanity. Because of this, Christians commonly refer to Jesus as Christ or Messiah.[4] Jesus' ministry, sacrificial death, Sony VPCF11C4E/B Batteryand subsequent resurrection, are often referred to as the Gospel message ("good news"). In short, the Gospel is news of God the Father's eternal victory over evil,[5] and the promise of salvation and eternal life for all people, through divine grace.[6]

Worldwide the three largest groups of Christianity are the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches, Sony VPCF13Z8E Batteryand the various denominations of Protestantism. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox patriarchates split from one another in the East–West Schism of 1054 AD, and Protestantism came into existence during the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, splitting from the Roman Catholic Church.[7]

Christianity began as a Jewish sect in the mid-1st century. Sony VPCF13Z8E/BI Battery

[8][9] Originating in the eastern Mediterranean coast of the Middle East (modern Israel and Palestine), it quickly spread to Syria, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and Egypt. It grew in size and influence over a few decades, and by the 4th century had become the dominant religion within the Roman Empire.[10] During the Middle Ages, Sony VPCF12S1E/B Batterymost of the remainder of Europe was Christianized, with Christians also being a sometimes large religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, Ethiopia[11] and parts of India.[12] Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world.[13][14][15] Sony VPCF12Z1E/BI Battery

Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, referred to as the "Old Testament" in Christianity. The foundation of Christian theology is expressed in the early Christian ecumenical creeds which contain claims predominantly accepted by followers of the Christian faith.[16] Sony VPCF13M1E/H Battery

These professions state that Jesus suffered, died, was buried, and was resurrected from the dead in order to grant eternal life to those who believe in him and trust him for the remission of their sins (salvation).[17] They further maintain that Jesus bodily ascended into heaven where he rules and reigns with God the Father. Sony VPCF13V5002B Battery

Most denominations teach that Jesus will return to judge all humans, living and dead, and grant eternal life to his followers.[18] He is considered the model of a virtuous life, and both the revealer and physical incarnation of God.[19] Christians call the message of Jesus Christ the Gospel ("good news") and hence refer to the earliest written accounts of his ministry as gospels. Sony VPCF21Z1E/BI BatteryAs of the early 21st century, Christianity has approximately 2.2 billion adherents.[20][21][22] Christianity represents about a quarter to a third of the world's population and is the world's largest religion.[23][24] Christianity is the state religion of several countries.[25] Among all Christians, 37.5% live in the Americas, Sony VPCF24Q1E Battery

Sony VPCF23QIE Battery 25.7% live in Europe, 22.5% live in Africa, 13.1% live in Asia, 1.2% live in Oceania and 0.9% live in the Middle East.

Though there are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible on which Christianity is based, Christians share a set of beliefs that they hold as essential to their faith.[26]

Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are concise doctrinal statements or confessions, Sony VPCY21S1E Batteryusually of religious beliefs. They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith.

Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even while agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal “in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another.” Sony VPCYA17GH/R Battery[27]:p.111 Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada and the Churches of Christ.[28][29]:14-15[30]:123An Eastern Christian Icon depicting Emperor Constantine and the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea (325) as holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381. Sony VPCCW2Z1E/B Battery

The Apostles' Creed remains the most popular statement of the articles of Christian faith that are generally acceptable to most Christian denominations that are creedal. It is widely used by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical Churches of Western Christian tradition, Sony VPCY11S1E Batteryincluding the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and Western Orthodoxy. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists. This particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. Sony VPCY11S1E/S Battery

The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome.[31]Christ's second coming, the Day of Judgement and salvation of the faithful.The Nicene Creed, largely a response to Arianism, was formulated at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in 325 and 381 respectively[32][33] Sony VPCY11AGJ Battery

and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the First Council of Ephesus in 431.[34]The Chalcedonian Creed, developed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451,[35] though rejected by the Oriental Orthodox Churches,[36] taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, Sony VPCY11AHJ Battery

and that both natures are perfect but are nevertheless perfectly united into one person.[37]

The Athanasian Creed, received in the Western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the Substance."[38] Sony VPCY11AVJ BatteryMost Christians (Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Rite and Protestants alike) accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above.[39]

The Ten Commandments, are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship, which play a fundamental role in Judaism and most forms of Christianity. Sony VPCY11M1E Battery

They include instructions to worship only God and to keep the Sabbath, and prohibitions against idolatry, blasphemy, murder, theft, and adultery. Different groups follow slightly different traditions for interpreting and numbering them. According to the synoptic gospels, Christ generalised the law into two underlying principles; Sony VPCY11S1E Battery

The first is Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one; and you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind, and with all your strength. While the second is You shall love your neighbor as yourself.[Matthew 22:34-40][Mark 12:28-33] These are in fact quotes from Deuteronomy 6:4 and Leviticus 19:18. Sony VPCY11V9E Battery

Barnes' Notes on the New Testament comments on these verses saying: "These comprehend the substance of what Moses in the law, and what the prophets have spoken. What they have said has been to endeavour (sic) to win men to the love of God and each other. Love to God and man comprehends the whole [of] religion; Sony VPCY11V9E/S Batteryand to produce this has been the design of Moses, the prophets, the Saviour, and the apostles."[40]

The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ). The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation Χριστός (Christos) is the source of the English word "Christ".[19] Sony VPCY219FJ/S Battery

Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as saviour of humanity, and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. Sony VPCY21AFJ BatteryThe core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.[41]

While there have been many theological disputes over the nature of Jesus over the earliest centuries of Christian history, Sony VPCY21AGJ BatteryChristians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin. As fully God, he rose to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead",Sony VPCY21AHJ Battery[42] he ascended to heaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father"[43] and will ultimately return[Acts 1:9–11] to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and final establishment of the Kingdom of God.

According to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Sony VPCY21AVJ Battery

Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical Gospels, however infancy Gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, is well documented in the Gospels contained within the New Testament. The Biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include: his baptism, miracles, Sony VPCY21S1E/L Batterypreaching, teaching, and deeds.

Resurrection of Christ by Noel Coypel, 1700, using a hovering depiction of Jesus.

Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in human history.[44] Among Christian beliefs, Sony VPCY21S1E/P Batterythe death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based.[45][46] According to the New Testament Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later. Sony VPCY21S1E/SI Battery[Jn. 19:30–31] [Mk. 16:1] [16:6] The New Testament mentions several resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to his twelve apostles and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once",[1Cor 15:6] before Jesus' Ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, Sony PCG-31211T Batterywith special emphasis during Holy Week which includes Good Friday and Easter Sunday.

The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in Christian Theology, partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people eternal life.[47] Sony PCG-31311T Battery

Christian churches accept and teach the New Testament account of the resurrection of Jesus with very few exceptions.[48] Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church. Sony PCG-51111T Battery[49] Some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection,[50][51] seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing myth. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues.[52] Paul the Apostle, an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, Sony PCG-81111T Batterythen all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless."[1Cor 15:14] [53]

Paul of Tarsus, like Jews and Roman pagans of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity, and eternal life.[54] For Paul the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are "Christ's" are, Sony PCG-81311T Batterylike Israel, descendants of Abraham and "heirs according to the promise".[Gal. 3:29] [55] The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel the "children of God" and were therefore no longer "in the flesh".[Rom. 8:9,11,16] [54] Sony VPCF138FC Battery

Modern Christian churches tend to be much more concerned with how humanity can be saved from a universal condition of sin and death than the question of how both Jews and Gentiles can be in God's family. According to both Catholic and Protestant doctrine, salvation comes by Jesus' substitutionary death and resurrection. Sony VPCF219FC BatteryThe Catholic Church teaches that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized.[56][57] Martin Luther taught that baptism was necessary for salvation, but modern Lutherans and other Protestants tend to teach that salvation is a gift that comes to an individual by God's grace, Sony VPCS135EC Battery

sometimes defined as "unmerited favor", even apart from baptism.

Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, Sony VPCS136EC Batterybut that sanctifying grace is irresistible.[58] In contrast Catholics, Orthodox Christians and Arminian Protestants believe that the exercise of free will is necessary to have faith in Jesus.[59]

Trinity refers to the teaching that the one God comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing persons; the Father, Sony VPCS138EC Batterythe Son (incarnate in Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the Godhead,[60][61][62] although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead.[63] In the words of the Athanasian Creed, an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, Sony VPCS139GC Batteryand yet there are not three Gods but one God".[64] They are distinct from another: the Father has no source, the Son is begotten of the Father, and the Spirit proceeds from the Father. Though distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation.[65]

The Trinity is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. Sony VPCYA15EC Battery"Father, Son and Holy Spirit" represents both the immanence and transcendence of God. God is believed to be infinite and God's presence may be perceived through the actions of Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit.[66]

According to this doctrine, Sony VPCYA16EC BatteryGod is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in Western Christian theology) from the Son. Sony VPCYA25EC BatteryRegardless of this apparent difference, the three 'persons' are each eternal and omnipotent.

The word trias, from which trinity is derived, is first seen in the works of Theophilus of Antioch. He wrote of "the Trinity of God (the Father), Sony VPCYA26EC BatteryHis Word (the Son) and His Wisdom (Holy Spirit)".[67] The term may have been in use before this time. Afterwards it appears in Tertullian.[68][69] In the following century the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen.[70]

Trinitarianism denotes those Christians who believe in the concept of the Trinity. Almost all Christian denominations and Churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Sony VPCYB15JC BatteryAlthough the words "Trinity" and "Triune" do not appear in the Bible, theologians beginning in the 3rd century developed the term and concept to facilitate comprehension of the New Testament teachings of God as Father, God as Jesus the Son, and God as the Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply three gods, Sony VGN-SR39XN/S Batterynor that each member of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God; Trinity is defined as one God in three Persons.[71]

Nontrinitarianism refers to beliefs systems that reject the doctrine of the Trinity. They are a small minority of Christians. Various nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, Sony VGN-SR29VN/S Batteryleading to the disputes about Christology.[72] Nontrinitarianism later appeared again in the Gnosticism of the Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries, in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, and in some groups arising during the Second Great Awakening of the 19th century.

Christianity, like other religions, Sony VGN-SR29XN/S Batteryhas adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the Biblical canon, the Old Testament and New Testament, as the inspired word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that, what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word used to describe inspiration in 2 Timothy 3:16 is Theopneustos, Sony VGN-SR31M/S Batterywhich literally means "God-breathed".[73] Some believe that divine inspiration makes our present Bibles "inerrant". Others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, though none of those are extant. Still others maintain that only a particular translation is inerrant, such as the King James Version. Sony VGN-SR19VN Battery [74][75][76] Another view closely related is Biblical infallibility or Limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography, or science. The Books of the Bible, considered to be inspired, among Judaism, and the Catholic, Sony VGN-SR19XN Battery

Orthodox and Protestant churches vary, thus each define the canon differently, although there is substantial overlap. These variations are a reflection of the range of traditions and councils that have convened on the subject. Every version of the Bible always includes books of the Tanakh, the canon of the Hebrew Bible. Sony VGN-SR21M/S Battery

This makes up what Christians regard as the Old Testament. The Catholic and Orthodox canons, in addition to the Tanakh, also include the Deuterocanonical Books, as part of the Old Testament. These Books appear in the Septuagint, but are regarded by Protestants to be apocryphal. However, Sony VGN-SR3CW/B Batterythey are considered to be important historical documents which help to inform the understanding of words, grammar and syntax used in the historical period of their conception. Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament.[77] The New Testament, Sony VGN-SR3S1 Batteryoriginally written in koine greek, contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all churches.

Catholic and Orthodox interpretations.An Eastern Catholic Bishop of the Syro-Malabar Church holding the Mar Thoma Cross which symbolizes the heritage and identity of the Saint Thomas Christians of India.

In antiquity, Sony VGN-SR41M/P Batterytwo schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.[78] Sony VGN-SR41M/S Battery

Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual.[79]

The literal sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The spiritual sense is further subdivided into:

the allegorical sense, which includes typology. Sony VGN-SR41M/W BatteryAn example would be the parting of the Red Sea being understood as a "type" (sign) of baptism.[1Cor 10:2]

the moral sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching.

the anagogical sense, which applies to eschatology, eternity and the consummation of the world

Regarding exegesis, Sony VGN-SR49VN/H Batteryfollowing the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds:

the injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the literal[80][81]

that the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held[82]

that scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church"[83] and

that "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, Sony VGN-SR51B/P Battery the Bishop of Rome".[84]

Protestant Christians believe that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and revealed all truth necessary for salvation. This concept is known as sola scriptura.[85] Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or "perspicuous"), Sony VGN-SR51B/S Batterybecause of the help of the Holy Spirit, or both. Martin Luther believed that without God's help Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness".[86] He advocated "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture".[86] John Calvin wrote, "all who…follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light."[87] Sony VGN-SR51B Battery

The Second Helvetic Confession, composed by the pastor of the Reformed church in Zurich (successor to Protestant reformer Zwingli) was adopted as a declaration of doctrine by most European Reformed churches.[88]

Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, Sony VGN-SR51MF/W Battery

the historical-grammatical method.[89] The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in Biblical hermeneutics to find the intended original meaning in the text.[90] This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, Sony VGN-SR51MF Batterythe historical background, the literary genre as well as theological (canonical) considerations.[91] The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. Sony VGN-SR45H/B Battery

The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As Milton S. Terry said: "A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture." Sony VGN-SR45H/N Battery[92] Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics.[93]

The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking is Christian eschatology; Sony VGN-SR45H/P Batterythe study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible. The major issues in Christian eschatology are the Tribulation, death and the afterlife, the Rapture, the Second Coming of Jesus, Resurrection of the Dead, Heaven and Hell, Millennialism, the Last Judgment, the end of the world, and the New Heaven and New Earth. HP Pavilion dv6-1013ea BatteryChristians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of time after a period of severe persecution (the tribulation). All who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies.[95][96] HP Pavilion dv6-1010ea BatteryMost Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the general judgement at the Resurrection of the dead (see below) as well as the belief (held by Roman Catholics,[97][98] Orthodox[99][100] and most Protestants) in a judgment particular to the individual soul upon physical death. HP Pavilion dv6-1005ea BatteryIn Roman Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence.[101] HP Pavilion dv6-1025ef BatteryThose who have attained this goal are called saints (Latin sanctus, "holy").[102]

Samples of Catholic religious objects—The Holy Bible, a Crucifix, and a Rosary.

Justin Martyr described 2nd century Christian liturgy in his First Apology (c. 150) to Emperor Antoninus Pius, HP Pavilion dv6-1108ca Battery and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship:

And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, HP Pavilion dv6-2010sa Battery

the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability,   HP Pavilion dv6t Batteryand the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who,   HP Pavilion dv6t-1000 Batterythrough sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.

Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting.   HP Pavilion dv6t-1100 BatteryScripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the Gospels. Often these are arranged on an annual cycle, using a book called a lectionary. Instruction is given based on these readings, called a sermon, or homily. There are a variety of congregational prayers,   HP Pavilion dv6z Batteryincluding thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung. The Lord's Prayer, or Our Father, is regularly prayed. The Eucharist (called Holy Communion, or the Lord's Supper) is the part of liturgical worship that consists of a consecrated meal, usually bread and wine.   HP Pavilion dv6z-1000 BatteryJustin Martyr described the Eucharist:

And this food is called among us Eukaristia [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined.   HP Pavilion dv6-1148ca Battery

For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, HP Pavilion dv6-1210SA Batteryand from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh.

Some Christian denominations practice closed communion. They offer communion to those who are already united in that denomination or sometimes individual church. Catholics restrict participation to their members who are not in a state of mortal sin.   HP Pavilion dv6-1215SA Battery

Most other churches practice open communion since they view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all believing Christians to participate.

A modern Protestant worship band leading a contemporary worship session.

Some groups depart from this traditional liturgical structure.   HP Pavilion dv6-1120EA Battery

A division is often made between "High" church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "Low" services, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of worship. Seventh-day Adventists meet on Saturday, while others do not meet on a weekly basis.   HP Pavilion dv6-1120SA BatteryCharismatic or Pentecostal congregations may spontaneously feel led by the Holy Spirit to action rather than follow a formal order of service, including spontaneous prayer. Quakers sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak. Some Evangelical services resemble concerts with rock and pop music, dancing, and use of multimedia.   HP Pavilion dv6-1140EA BatteryFor groups which do not recognize a priesthood distinct from ordinary believers the services are generally led by a minister, preacher, or pastor. Still others may lack any formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. Some churches use only a cappella music, either on principle (for example, many Churches of Christ object to the use of instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).   HP Pavilion dv6-1210EA Battery

Worship can be varied for special events like baptisms or weddings in the service or significant feast days. In the early church, Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the worship. In many churches today, adults and children will separate for all or some of the service to receive age-appropriate teaching.   HP Pavilion dv6-1216SA Battery

Such children's worship is often called Sunday school or Sabbath school (Sunday schools are often held before rather than during services).

In Christian belief and practice, a sacrament is a rite, instituted by Christ, that mediates grace, constituting a sacred mystery.   HP Pavilion dv6-1330SA BatteryThe term is derived from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery. Views concerning both what rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament vary among Christian denominations and traditions.[105]

The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign,   HP Pavilion dv6-2110EA Batteryinstituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are Baptism and the Eucharist, however, the majority of Christians recognize seven Sacraments or Divine Mysteries: Baptism, Confirmation (Chrismation in the Orthodox tradition), and the Eucharist, Holy Orders, Reconciliation of a Penitent (confession),   HP Pavilion dv6-2114A Battery

Anointing of the Sick, and Matrimony.[105] Taken together, these are the Seven Sacraments as recognised by churches in the High church tradition—notably Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Independent Catholic, Old Catholic most Anglicans, and some Lutherans. Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments,   HP Pavilion dv6-2112SA Batterywhile some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology.[105] Most Protestant Christian denominations who believe these rites do not communicate grace prefer to call them ordinances.

Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant communities frame worship around a liturgical calendar.   HP Pavilion dv5-1008ca BatteryThis includes holy days, such as solemnities which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus or the saints, periods of fasting such as Lent, and other pious events such as memoria or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as Christmas, Sony VPCF117FJ BatteryEaster and Pentecost. A few churches make no use of a liturgical calendar.[106]

The cross, which is today one of the most widely recognised symbols in the world, was used as a Christian symbol from the earliest times.[107][108] Tertullian, in his book De Corona, tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross.[109] Sony VPCF117HG/BI BatteryAlthough the cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use until the 5th century.[110]

Among the symbols employed by the primitive Christians, that of the fish seems to have ranked first in importance. From monumental sources such as tombs it is known that the symbolic fish was familiar to Christians from the earliest times. Sony VPCF118FJ Battery

The fish was depicted as a Christian symbol in the first decades of the 2nd century.[111] Its popularity among Christians was due principally, it would seem, to the famous acrostic consisting of the initial letters of five Greek words forming the word for fish (Ichthys), which words briefly but clearly described the character of Christ and the claim to worship of believers: Sony VPCF119FC BatteryIesous Christos Theou Yios Soter, meaning, Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour.[111]

Christians from the very beginning adorned their tombs with paintings of Christ, of the saints, of scenes from the Bible and allegorical groups. The catacombs are the cradle of all Christian art. Sony VPCF119FJ Battery

The first Christians had no prejudice against images, pictures, or statues. The idea that they must have feared the danger of idolatry among their new converts is disproved in the simplest way by the pictures, even statues, that remain from the 1st centuries.[112] Other major Christian symbols include the chi-rho monogram, Sony VPCF11AFJ Batterythe dove (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (symbolic of Christ's sacrifice), the vine (symbolising the necessary connectedness of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from writings found in the New Testament.[110]

Baptism is the ritual act, Sony VPCF11AGJ Batterywith the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the Church. Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations. Differences occur firstly, on whether the act has any spiritual significance, some churches hold to the doctrine of Baptismal Regeneration, which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person’s faith, Sony VPCF11AHJ Batteryand is intimately linked to salvation, this view is held by Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, while others simply acknowledge it as a purely symbolic act, an external public declaration of the inward change which has taken place in the person. Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology of the act. Sony VPCF11JFX/B BatteryThese methods being: Baptism by Immersion; if immersion is total, Baptism by Submersion; and Baptism by Affusion (pouring) and Baptism by Aspersion (sprinkling). Those who hold the first view may also adhere to the tradition of Infant Baptism.[113]

Jesus' teaching on prayer in the Sermon on the Mount displays a distinct lack of interest in the external aspects of prayer. Sony VPCF11M1E BatteryA concern with the techniques of prayer is condemned as 'pagan', and instead a simple trust in God's fatherly goodness is encouraged.[Mat. 6:5–15] Elsewhere in the New Testament this same freedom of access to God is also emphasized.[Phil. 4:6][Jam. 5:13–19] This confident position should be understood in light of Christian belief in the unique relationship between the believer and Christ through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit.[114] Sony VPCF11M1E/H Battery

In subsequent Christian traditions, certain physical gestures are emphasised, including medieval gestures such as genuflection or making the sign of the cross. Kneeling, bowing and prostrations (see also poklon) are often practiced in more traditional branches of Christianity. Sony VPCF11S1E BatteryFrequently in Western Christianity the hands are placed palms together and forward as in the feudal commendation ceremony. At other times the older orans posture may be used, with palms up and elbows in.

Intercessory prayer is prayer offered for the benefit of other people. There are many intercessory prayers recorded in the Bible, Sony VPCF11Z1E Batteryincluded prayers of the Apostle Peter on behalf of sick persons[Acts 9:40] and by prophets of the Old Testament in favor of other people.[1Ki 17:19–22] In the New Testament book of James no distinction is made between the intercessory prayer offered by ordinary believers and the prominent Old Testament prophet Elijah.[Jam 5:16–18] The effectiveness of prayer in Christianity derives from the power of God rather than the status of the one praying[114] Sony VPCF11ZHJ Battery

The ancient church, in both Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity, developed a tradition of asking for the intercession of (deceased) saints, and this remains the practice of most Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and some Anglican churches. Churches of the Protestant Reformation however rejected prayer to the saints, Sony VPCF11C4E/B Batterylargely on the basis of the sole mediatorship of Christ.[115] The reformer Huldrych Zwingli admitted that he had offered prayers to the saints until his reading of the Bible convinced him that this was idolatrous.[116]

According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church: Sony VPCF11C5E Battery"Prayer is the raising of one's mind and heart to God or the requesting of good things from God."[117] The Book of Common Prayer in the Anglican tradition is a guide which provides a set order for church services, containing set prayers, scripture readings, and hymns or sung Psalms.Chapel of Saint Ananias, Damascus, Syria, Sony VPCF11D4E Batteryan early example of a Christian house of worship; built in the 1st century AD

An early circular ichthys symbol, created by combining the Greek letters ΙΧΘΥΣ into a wheel. Kadisha Valley, Lebanon, home to some of earliest Christian monasteries in the world.

Main articles: Early Christianity and First seven Ecumenical Councils

Christianity began as a Jewish sect in the eastern Mediterranean in the mid-1st century. Sony VPCF11M1E/H BatteryIts earliest development took place under the leadership of the Twelve Apostles, particularly Saint Peter and Paul the Apostle, followed by the early bishops, whom Christians consider the successors of the Apostles.

According to the scriptures, Christians were from the beginning subject to persecution by some Jewish religious authorities, Sony VPCF11S1E/B Batterywho disagreed with the apostles' teachings (See Split of early Christianity and Judaism). This involved punishments, including death, for Christians such as Stephen[Acts 7:59] and James, son of Zebedee.[Acts 12:2] Larger-scale persecutions followed at the hands of the authorities of the Roman Empire, first in the year 64, when Emperor Nero blamed them for the Great Fire of Rome. According to Church tradition, Sony VPCF115FG/B Batteryit was under Nero's persecution that early Church leaders Peter and Paul of Tarsus were each martyred in Rome. Further widespread persecutions of the Church occurred under nine subsequent Roman emperors, most intensely under Decius and Diocletian. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. Sony VPCF2 BatteryThese authors are known as the Church Fathers, and study of them is called Patristics. Notable early Fathers include Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen. However, Armenia is considered the first nation to accept Christianity in 301 AD. Sony VPCF21Z1E BatteryState persecution ceased in the 4th century, when Constantine I issued an edict of toleration in 313. On 27 February 380, Emperor Theodosius I enacted a law establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire.[121] From at least the 4th century, Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization.[122] Sony VPCF22J1E BatteryConstantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which sought to address the Arian heresy and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still used by the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, Anglican Communion, and many Protestant churches.[39] Nicaea was the first of a series of Ecumenical (worldwide) Sony VPCF22L1E BatteryCouncils which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning Christology.[123] The Assyrian Church of the East did not accept the third and following Ecumenical Councils, and are still separate today. In 395, the most Christianized regions of the world were Crete, Cyprus, Sony VPCF22M1E Battery Anatolia, Armenia, the Nile delta, and Numidia (present-day Tunisia and Algeria).[124]

The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in Egypt, and by the end of the 2nd century in the region around Carthage. Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity includes Tertullian, Sony VPCF22S1E BatteryClement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, Cyprian, Athanasius and Augustine of Hippo. The later rise of Islam in North Africa reduced the size and numbers of Christian congregations, leaving only the Coptic Church in Egypt and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in the Horn of Africa. The History of Christianity in Africa began in the 1st century when Mark the Evangelist started the Orthodox Church of Alexandria in about 43 AD. Sony VPCF22S8E BatteryWith the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the west, the papacy became a political player, first visible in Pope Leo's diplomatic dealings with Huns and Vandals.[128] The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the various tribes. Whilst arianists instituted the death penalty for practicing pagans (see Massacre of Verden as example), Sony VPCF23M1E Battery

Catholicism also spread among the Germanic peoples,[128] the Celtic and Slavic peoples, the Hungarians, and the Baltic peoples.

Around 500, St. Benedict set out his Monastic Rule, establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of monasteries. Sony VPCF23Q1E BatteryMonasticism became a powerful force throughout Europe,[128] and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in Ireland, Scotland and Gaul, contributing to the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century.

In the 7th century Muslims conquered Syria (including Jerusalem), North Africa and Spain. Part of the Muslims' success was due to the exhaustion of the Byzantine empire in its decades long conflict with Persia. Sony VPCF231S1E Battery

Beginning in the 8th century, with the rise of Carolingian leaders, the papacy began to find greater political support in the Frankish Kingdom.[130]

The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church. Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed ecclesiastical structure and administrationSony VPCF23S1E BatteryIn the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the Byzantine emperors. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons.[132] In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of Cluny.[133] Sony VPCF24M1E BatteryIn the west, from the 11th century onward, older cathedral schools developed into universities (see University of Oxford, University of Paris, and University of Bologna.) Originally teaching only theology, these steadily added subjects including medicine, philosophy and law, becoming the direct ancestors of modern institutions of learning.[134] Sony VPCF11S1E Battery

Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Europe, mendicant orders were founded, bringing the consecrated religious life out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the Franciscans[135] and the Dominicans[136] founded by St. Francis and St. Dominic respectively. Sony VPCF11C4E/B BatteryBoth orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order were the Cistercians, whose large isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, Sony VPCF11Z1E/BI Batteryculminating in the orders of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and the building of the great European cathedrals.[137]

From 1095 under the pontificate of Urban II, the Crusades were launched.[138] These were a series of military campaigns in the Holy Land and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I for aid against Turkish expansion. Sony VPCF12E1E/H Battery

The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade.[139]

Over a period stretching from the 7th to the 13th century, the Christian Church underwent gradual alienation, Sony VPCF12F4E/H Batteryresulting in a schism dividing it into a so-called Latin or Western Christian branch, the Roman Catholic Church,[140] and an Eastern, largely Greek, branch, the Orthodox Church. These two churches disagree on a number of administrative, liturgical, and doctrinal issues, most notably papal primacy of jurisdiction.[141][142] The Second Council of Lyon (1274) Sony VPCF12M1E/H Batteryand the Council of Florence (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Roman Catholic Church has achieved union with various smaller eastern churches. Sony VPCF13E4E BatteryBeginning around 1184, following the crusade against the Cathar heresy,[143] various institutions, broadly referred to as the Inquisition, were established with the aim of suppressing heresy and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion and prosecution.[144] Sony VPCF13E8E BatteryThe 15th-century Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. Another major schism, the Reformation, resulted in the splintering of the Western Christendom into several Christian denominations.[145] Martin Luther in 1517 protested against the sale of indulgences and soon moved on to deny several key points of Roman Catholic doctrine. Sony VPCF13J0E/H BatteryOthers like Zwingli and Calvin further criticized Roman Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called Protestantism, which repudiated the primacy of the pope, the role of tradition, the seven sacraments, and other doctrines and practices.[146] The Reformation in England began in 1534, Sony VPCF1318E/H Batterywhen King Henry VIII had himself declared head of the Church of England. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved.[147]

Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, Sony VPCF13M1E/B Batteryknown as the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reform.[148] The Council of Trent clarified and reasserted Roman Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states.[149] Sony VPCF11C4E/B BatteryMeanwhile, the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. Sony VPCF13Z8E Battery

Throughout Europe, the divides caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of religious violence and the establishment of separate state churches in Europe: Lutheranism in parts of Germany and in Scandinavia and Anglicanism in England in 1534. Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of conflicts in which religion played a key factor. Sony VPCF13Z8E/BI Battery

The Thirty Years' War, the English Civil War, and the French Wars of Religion are prominent examples. These events intensified the Christian debate on persecution and toleration.[150]

In the era known as the Great Divergence, when in the West the Age of Enlightenment and the Scientific revolution brought about great societal changes, Sony VPCF12S1E/B BatteryChristianity was confronted with various forms of skepticism and with certain modern political ideologies such as versions of socialism and liberalism.[151] Events ranged from mere anti-clericalism to violent outbursts against Christianity such as the Dechristianisation during the French Revolution,[152] the Spanish Civil War, Sony VPCF12Z1E/BI Batteryand general hostility of Marxist movements, especially the Russian Revolution.

Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of nation states after the Napoleonic era. In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition, to greater or lesser extents, Sony VPCF13M1E/H Batterywith each other and with the state. Variables are the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political, and ideological orientation of the state. Urs Altermatt of the University of Fribourg, looking specifically at Catholicisms in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations. In traditionally Catholic countries such as Belgium, Sony VPCF13V5002B BatterySpain, and to some extent Austria, religious and national communities are more or less identical. Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in Poland, Ireland, and Switzerland, all countries with competing denominations. Competition is found in Germany, the Netherlands, and again Switzerland, Sony VPCF21Z1E/BI Batteryall countries with minority Catholic populations who to a greater or lesser extent did identify with the nation. Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and Italy, countries where the state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church. Sony VPCF24Q1E Battery [153] The combined factors of the formation of nation states and ultramontanism, especially in Germany and the Netherlands but also in England (to a much lesser extent[154]), often forced Catholic churches, organizations, and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, Sony VPCF23QIE Battery specifically the papacy. This conflict came to a head in the First Vatican Council, and in Germany would lead directly to the Kulturkampf, where liberals and Protestants under the leadership of Bismarck managed to severely restrict Catholic expression and organization.

Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own in Europe,[155] Sony VPCY21S1E Batteryparticularly in the Czech Republic and Estonia,[156] while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and southern hemisphere in general, with the western civilization no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Sony VPCYA17GH/R BatterySome Europeans (including diaspora), Indigenous peoples of the Americas, and natives of other continents have revived their respective peoples' historical folk religions. (see Neo-paganism, Native Americans in the United States#Religion) Approximately 7.1 to 10% of Arabs are Christians[157] most prevalent in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon. Sony VPCCW2S8E/W BatteryWith around 2.2 billion adherents,[20][21][22] split into 3 main branches of Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox, Christianity is the world's largest religion.[158] The Christian share of the world's population has stood at around 33% for the last hundred years, which says that one in three persons on earth are Christians. Sony VPCCW2Z1E/B Battery

This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world (around 23,000 per day) have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Europe and North America (around 7,600 per day).[159] It is still the predominant religion in Europe, Sony VPCY11S1E Batterythe Americas and Southern Africa. In Asia, it is the dominant religion in Georgia, Armenia, East Timor and the Philippines.[160] However, it is declining in many areas including the Northern and Western United States,[161] Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), northern Europe (including Great Britain,[162] Scandinavia and other places), Sony VPCY11S1E/S BatteryFrance, Germany, the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East,[163][164][165] South Korea,[166] Taiwan[167] and Macau[168]). The Christian population is not decreasing in Brazil, the Southern United States[169] and the province of Alberta, Sony VPCW1 Battery

Canada,[170] but the percentage is decreasing. In countries such as Australia[171] and New Zealand,[172] the Christian population are declining in both numbers and percentage.

However, there are many charismatic movements that have become well established over large parts of the world, especially Africa, Latin America and AsiaSony VPCW1E8R/BU Battery.[173][174][175][176][177] A leading Saudi Arabian Muslim leader Sheikh Ahmad al Qatanni reported on Aljazeera that every day 16,000 African Muslims convert to Christianity. He claimed that Islam was losing 6 million African Muslims a year to becoming Christians, Sony VPCY11AGJ Batteryincluding Muslims in Algeria,[183] France,[183] India,[183] Morocco,[183] Russia,[183] and Turkey.[183][184] It is also reported that Christianity is popular among people of different backgrounds in India (mostly Hindus),[185] Malaysia,[186] Mongolia,[187] Nigeria,[188] North Korea, and Vietnam.[189]

In most countries in the developed world, Sony VPCY11AHJ Batterychurch attendance among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades.[190] Some sources view this simply as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions,[191] while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general.[192] Sony VPCY11AVJ Battery

Christianity, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of the following nations: Costa Rica (Roman Catholic),[193] Denmark (Evangelical Lutheran),[194] El Salvador (Roman Catholic),[195] England (Anglican),[196] Finland (Evangelical Lutheran & Orthodox),[197][198] Georgia (Georgian Orthodox),[199] Greece (Greek Orthodox), Sony VPCY11M1E Battery[195] Iceland (Evangelical Lutheran),[200] Liechtenstein (Roman Catholic),[201] Malta (Roman Catholic),[202] Monaco (Roman Catholic),[203] Norway (Evangelical Lutheran),[204] and Vatican City (Roman Catholic).[205]

There are numerous other countries, Sony VPCY11S1E Batteryuch as Cyprus, which although do not have an established church, still give official recognition to a specific Christian denomination.[206]rimary divisions of Christianity are Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism.[30]:14[207] There are other Christian groups that do not fit neatly into one of these primary categories.[208] Sony VPCY11V9E Batterys The Nicene Creed is "accepted as authoritative by the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and major Protestant churches."[209] There is a diversity of doctrines and practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups are sometimes classified under denominations, though for theological reasons many groups reject this classification systemSony VPCY11V9E/S Battery.[210] Another distinction that is sometimes drawn is between Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity.rch comprises those particular churches, headed by bishops, in communion with the Pope, the Bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality and Church governance.[211][212] Sony VPCY219FJ/S BatteryLike the Eastern Orthodox, the Roman Catholic Church through Apostolic succession traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ.[213][214] Catholics maintain that the "one, holy, catholic and apostolic church" founded by Jesus subsists fully in the Roman Catholic Church, Sony VPCY21AFJ Batterybut also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities[215][216] and works towards reconciliation among all Christians.[215] The Catholic faith is detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.[217][218]

The 2,834 sees[219] are grouped into 23 particular rites, the largest being the Latin Rite, each with distinct traditions regarding the liturgy and the administering the sacraments. Sony VPCY21AGJ Battery[220] With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest church representing over half of all Christians and one sixth of the world's population.[221][222][223]

Various smaller communities, such as the Old Catholic and Independent Catholic Churches, include the word Catholic in their title, Sony VPCY21AHJ Batteryand share much in common with Roman Catholicism but are no longer in communion with the See of Rome. The Old Catholic Church is in communion with the Anglican Communion.[224][225][not in citation given]

Eastern Orthodoxy comprises those churches in communion with the Patriarchal Sees of the East, Sony VPCY21AVJ Batterysuch as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.[226] Like the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through Apostolic succession and has an episcopal structure, though the autonomy of the individual, mostly national churches is emphasized. Sony VPCY21S1E/L Battery

A number of conflicts with Western Christianity over questions of doctrine and authority culminated in the Great Schism. Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with over 200 million adherents.[222]

The Oriental Orthodox Churches (also called Old Oriental Churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—Nicaea, Sony VPCY21S1E/P BatteryConstantinople and Ephesus—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon and instead espouse a Miaphysite christology. The Oriental Orthodox communion comprises six groups: Syriac Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Sony VPCY21S1E/SI BatteryEthiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India) and Armenian Apostolic churches.[227] These six churches, while being in communion with each other are completely independent hierarchically.[228] These churches are generally not in communion with Eastern Orthodox Churches with whom they are in dialogue for erecting a communion.[229] Sony VPCCW1E8R/WU Battery

In the 16th century, Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin inaugurated what has come to be called Protestantism. Luther's primary theological heirs are known as Lutherans. Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally, and are broadly referred to as the Reformed Tradition. Sony VPCCW1S1E Battery[230] Most Protestant traditions branch out from the Reformed tradition in some way. In addition to the Lutheran and Reformed branches of the Reformation, there is Anglicanism after the English Reformation. The Anabaptist tradition was largely ostracized by the other Protestant parties at the time, Sony VPCCW1S1R Batterybut has achieved a measure of affirmation in more recent history. Some but not most Baptists prefer not to be called Protestants, claiming a direct ancestral line going back to the apostles in the 1st century.[231]

The oldest Protestant groups separated from the Catholic Church in the 16th century Protestant Reformation, Sony VPCCW1S1T Batteryfollowed in many cases by further divisions.[230] For example, the Methodist Church grew out of Anglican minister John Wesley's evangelical and revival movement in the Anglican Church.[232] Several Pentecostal and non-denominational Churches, which emphasize the cleansing power of the Holy Spirit, in turn grew out of the Methodist Church. Sony VPCCW1S1T/R Battery[233] Because Methodists, Pentecostals, and other evangelicals stress "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Saviour",[234] which comes from John Wesley's emphasis of the New Birth,[235] they often refer to themselves as being born-again.[236][237]

Estimates of the total number of Protestants are very uncertain, Sony VPCCW1S1T/W Battery

partly because of the difficulty in determining which denominations should be placed in these categories, but it seems clear that Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians after Catholicism in number of followers (although the Orthodox Church is larger than any single Protestant denomination).[222] Sony VPCCW1Z4E Battery

A special grouping are the Anglican churches descended from the Church of England and organised in the Anglican Communion. Some Anglican churches consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic.[238] Some Anglicans consider their church a branch of the "One Holy Catholic Church" alongside of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, HP Pavilion dv6-3111sa Batterya concept rejected by the Roman Catholic Church and some Eastern Orthodox.[239][240]

Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as "Christians" or "born-again Christians". They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism and/or creedalism of other Christian communities[241] HP Pavilion dv6-3048sa Batteryby calling themselves "non-denominational". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.[242]

Non-Trinitarianism includes all Christian belief systems that reject, wholly or partly, the doctrine of the Trinity, namely, HP Pavilion dv6-3032sa Batterythe teaching that God is three distinct yet coeternal and coequal hypostases who are indivisibly united in one essence.[243][244] In antiquity, sporadically in the Middle Ages, and again following the Reformation until today, differing views existed concerning the Godhead from those of Trinitarians and the related traditional Christology. HP Pavilion dv6-3046sa BatteryThough diverse, these views may be generally classified into those that hold Christ to be only divine and not differing from the Father hypostatically; those that hold Christ to be less fully God than the Father; in other forms being completely human and a messenger as the perfect created human.[245][246] HP Pavilion dv6-3056sa Battery

Esoteric Christianity is a term which refers to an ensemble of spiritual currents which regard Christianity as a mystery religion,[247][248] and profess the existence and possession of certain esoteric doctrines or practices,[249][250] hidden from the public but accessible only to a narrow circle of "enlightened",HP Pavilion dv6-3068ea Battery"initiated", or highly educated people.[251][252] A special characteristic common in these mystical denominations is the belief in reincarnation.[citation needed] Some of the esoteric Christian institutions include the Rosicrucian Fellowship, the Anthroposophical Society and the Martinism.

The Second Great Awakening, HP Pavilion dv6-3112sa Batterya period of religious revival that occurred in the U.S. during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches. They generally saw themselves as restoring the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches.[253] A common belief held by Restorationists was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, HP Pavilion dv6-3116sa Batterywhich was known as the Great Apostasy.[254][255]

Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early-19th century camp meetings in the Midwest and Upstate New York. American Millennialism and Adventism, which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the Jehovah's Witnesses movement (with 7 million members),[256] and, HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa Batteryas a reaction specifically to William Miller, the Seventh-day Adventists. Others, including the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Evangelical Christian Church in Canada,[257][258] Churches of Christ, and the Christian churches and churches of Christ, have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa Batterywhich was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the Christadelphians and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the largest denomination of the Latter Day Saint movement with over 13 million members. HP Pavilion dv6-3123sa Battery[259][260][261][262] While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly.

Cultural Christian is a broad term used to describe people with either ethnic or religious Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, HP Pavilion dv6-3298ea Battery

but who retain an affinity for the culture, art, music, and so on related to it.

Many of the population of the Western hemisphere could broadly be described as cultural Christians, due to the predominance of the Christian faith in Western culture, as well as widely celebrated religious holidays such as Easter and Christmas. HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa Battery

Another frequent application of the term is to distinguish political groups in areas of mixed religious backgrounds.

Most churches have long expressed ideals of being reconciled with each other, and in the 20th century Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways.[263] One way was greater cooperation between groups, HP Pavilion dv6-3180ea Battery such as the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the National Council of Churches in Australia which includes Roman Catholics.[263]

The other way was institutional union with new United and uniting churches. HP Pavilion dv6-3185sa BatteryCongregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada,[264] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Methodist, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches.[265] HP Pavilion dv6-3180sa BatterySteps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their Great Schism in 1054;[266] the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970;[267] HP Pavilion dv6-1132sa Batteryand the Lutheran and Roman Catholic churches signing The Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the Methodist church adopted the declaration.[268]

Another example of ecumenism is the invention of and growing usage of the Christian Flag, HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa Batterywhich was designed to represent all of Christendom.[269] The flag has a white field, with a red Latin cross inside a blue canton.[269]

Throughout the history of Christianity, many have criticized Christianity, the church, and Christians themselves. Some criticism specifically addresses Christian beliefs, teachings and interpretation of scripture. HP Pavilion dv6-3103sa Battery

Several areas of criticism include some claims of scripture itself, ethics of biblical interpretations that have been used historically to justify attitudes and behaviors that are seen by critics as clearly wrong, the question of compatibility with science, and certain Christian doctrines that some find unsettling or unreasonable. HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa Battery

Yemen has long existed at the crossroads of cultures; it linked some of the oldest centers of civilization in the Near East by virtue of its location in South Arabia. Between the 12th century BC and the 6th century, it was home of the Minaean, Sabaean, Hadhramaut, Qataban, Ausan, and Himyarite kingdoms, HP Pavilion dv6-6b57sa Batterywhich controlled the lucrative spice trade, and later came under Byzantine and Persian rule.[5] In the 6th century, the Himyarite king Abu-Karib Assad converted to Judaism after expanding his kingdom to include most of the Arabian peninsula and parts of East Africa. In the 7th century, Islamic caliphs began to exert control over the area. After this caliphate broke up, HP Pavilion dv6-6156ea BatteryYemen came under the control of many dynasties who ruled part, or often all, of South Arabia Mecca and most of Oman and even some parts of Gujarat in India during the rule of Queen Arwa al-Sulayhi Imams – descendants of prophet Muhammad also known as sayyids – ruled Yemen intermittently for 980 years, HP Pavilion G6-1004SA Batteryestablishing a theocratic political structure that flourished and covered at its pinnacle all the area south of Mecca to Dhoffar in Oman and all the way to Aden and the African coast of the Red sea, Gulf of Aden and parts of the Indian ocean adjacent to the Arabian Peninsula and strongly influencing and sometimes controlling sharifs of Hejaz.

Egyptian Shia caliphs occupied much of Yemen throughout the 11th century but were resisted by the Imams. By the 16th century and again in the 19th century, Yemen was part of the Ottoman Empire (first as the Eyalet of Yemen, later as the Vilayet of Yemen), and in some periods Imams exerted control over all Yemen.[5] HP Pavilion G6-1007SA Battery

The modern history of South Arabia and Yemen began in 1918 when Yemen gained independence from the Ottoman Empire. Between 1918 and 1962, Yemen was a monarchy ruled by the Hamidaddin family. There was a brief revolution in 1948 in which Imam Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din was killed. A rival sayyid family, HP Pavilion G6-1058SA Batterythe Alwazirs, seized power for several weeks. Backed by the al-Saud family of Saudi Arabia, the Hamidaddins restored their rule until 1962–1970 during the North Yemen Civil War. In 1962, North Yemen saw a republic rivaling the Imams with Egyptian Occupiers assistance, but Britain still had a protective area around the South Arabia port of Aden, HP Pavilion G6-1061SA Battery which it had created in the 19th century. Britain withdrew in 1967 and the area became South Yemen. In 1970, the southern government adopted a Communist governmental system. The two countries were formally united as the Republic of Yemen on 22 May 1990.

From 27 April to 7 July 1994, HP Pavilion G6-1207SA Batterya civil war between the former North and former South Yemen ended with the conquest of the southern capital, Aden. The dissatisfaction of the people in the South with the government of Sana’a led finally to an uprising in the South in 2007. Very soon the “al-Ḥirāk as-Silmī al-Janūbī”, HP Pavilion G6-1224SA Battery

the Southern Peaceful Movement (South Yemen Movement) was established in the same year to unify all southern activists. The demands on equality of treatment which was ignored by Sana’a developed very soon to the retrieval of the southern state.

The 2011–2012 Yemeni uprising followed the initial stages of the Tunisian Revolution HP Pavilion G6-1236SA Batteryand occurred simultaneously with the Egyptian Revolution and other mass protests in the Arab world in early 2011. The uprising was initially against unemployment, economic conditions and corruption, as well as against the government's proposals to modify the constitution of Yemen. HP Pavilion G6-1255SA Battery

The protestors' demands then escalated to calls for President Ali Abdullah Saleh to resign. After an election, power was transferred to the vice president, Abd Rabbuh Mansur Al-Hadi, for a two-year term starting in February 2012. Al-Hadi will oversee the drafting of a new constitution, HP Pavilion G6-1257SA Batteryfollowed by parliamentary and presidential elections in 2014.

Yemen is located in Western Asia, in the southern half of the Arabian Peninsula, bordering the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden, and the Red Sea. It lies south of Saudi Arabia and west of Oman, between latitudes 12° and 19° N and longitudes 42° and 55° E.

A number of Red Sea islands, including the Hanish Islands, HP Pavilion G7-1000SA BatteryKamaran, and Perim, as well as Socotra in the Arabian Sea, belong to Yemen. Many of the islands are volcanic; for example Jabal al-Tair had a volcanic eruption in 2007 and before that in 1883.

At 527,970 km2 (203,850 sq mi), Yemen is the world's 50th-largest country. It is comparable in size to Thailand and larger than the U.S. state of California. HP Pavilion G7-1004SA BatteryYemen is situated at 15°N 48°E.Until the signing of the Yemen-Saudi Arabia peace treaty in July 2000 [6] Yemen's northern border was undefined; the Arabian Desert prevented any human habitation there.The country can be divided geographically into four main regions: the coastal plains in the west, the western highlands, the eastern highlands, HP Pavilion dv5-1015ea Batteryand the Rub al Khali in the east.

The Tihamah ("hot lands" or "hot earth") form a very arid and flat coastal plain along Yemen's entire Red Sea coastline. Despite the aridity, the presence of many lagoons makes this region very marshy and a suitable breeding ground for malaria mosquitoes. HP Pavilion dv5-1012ea Battery

There are extensive crescent-shaped sand dunes. The evaporation in the Tihamah is so great that streams from the highlands never reach the sea, but they do contribute to extensive groundwater reserves. Today, these are heavily exploited for agricultural use. Near the village of Madar about 48 km (30 mi) north of Sana'a, HP Pavilion dv5-1010ea Batterydinosaur footprints were found, indicating that the area was once a muddy flat.

The Tihamah ends abruptly at the escarpment of the western highlands. This area, now heavily terraced to meet the demand for food, receives the highest rainfall in Arabia, rapidly increasing from 100 mm (3.9 in) per year to about 760 mm (29.9 in) in Ta'izz and over 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in Ibb. HP Pavilion dv5-1008ea BatteryAgriculture here is very diverse, with such crops as sorghum dominating. Cotton and many fruit trees are also grown, with mangoes being the most valuable. Temperatures are hot in the day but fall dramatically at night. There are perennial streams in the highlands but these never reach the sea because of high evaporation in the Tihamah. HP Pavilion dv5-1007ca Battery

The central highlands are an extensive high plateau over 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) in elevation. This area is drier than the western highlands because of rain-shadow influences but still receives sufficient rain in wet years for extensive cropping. Diurnal temperature ranges are among the highest in the world: ranges from 30 °C (86 °F) in the day to 0 °C (32 °F) at night are normal.[citation needed] Water storage allows for irrigation and the growing of wheat and barley. HP Pavilion dv5-1015ea BatterySana'a is located in this region. The highest point in Yemen is Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb, at 3,666 metres (12,028 ft).

Yemen's portion of the Rub al Khali desert in the east is much lower, generally below 1,000 metres (3,281 ft), and receives almost no rain. It is populated only by Bedouin herders of camels. HP Pavilion dv5-1034ca BatteryThe growing scarcity of water is a source of increasing international concern. See Water supply and sanitation in Yemen.

Yemen is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the Arab World, with a formal 35% employment rate, dwindling natural resources, a young population and increasing population growth. HP Pavilion dv5-1044ca BatteryYemen's economy is weak compared to most countries in the Middle-East, mainly because Yemen has very small oil reserves. Yemen's economy depends heavily on the oil it produces,[7] and its government receives the vast majority of its revenue from oil taxes. But Yemen's oil reserves are expected to be depleted by 2017, possibly bringing on economic collapse. HP Pavilion G6-1202SA Battery8] Yemen does have large proven reserves of natural gas.[9] Yemen's first liquified natural gas (LNG) plant began production in October 2009.

Rampant corruption is a prime obstacle to development in the country, limiting local reinvestments and driving away regional and international capital. Foreign investments remain largely concentrated around the nation's hydrocarbon industry. HP Pavilion G6-1255SA Battery [

Beginning in the mid-1950s, the Soviet Union and China provided large-scale assistance. For example, China is involved with the expansion of the Sana'a International Airport. In the south, pre-independence economic activity was overwhelmingly concentrated in the port city of Aden. The seaborne transit trade, which the port relied upon, HP Pavilion G6-1259SA Battery

collapsed with the closure of the Suez Canal and Britain's withdrawal from Aden in 1967.

Since unification in 1990,[10] the government has worked to integrate two relatively disparate economic systems. However, severe shocks, including the return in 1990 of approximately 850,000 Yemenis from the Persian Gulf states, HP Pavilion G6-1351EA Batterya subsequent major reduction of aid flows, and internal political disputes culminating in the 1994 civil war hampered economic growth.In the late 20th century Sana'a’s population grew rapidly, from roughly 55,000 in 1978 to more than 1 million in the early 21st century.[11] Sana'a may be the first capital city in the world to run out of water.[12] HP Pavilion G6-1359EA Battery

Since the conclusion of the war, the government made an agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to implement a structural adjustment program. Phase one of the program included major financial and monetary reforms, including floating the currency, reducing the budget deficit, and cutting subsidies. HP Pavilion G6-1365EA BatteryPhase two will address structural issues such as civil service reform.

In early 1995, the government of Yemen launched an economic, financial, and administrative reform program (EFARP) with the support of the World Bank and the IMF, as well as international donors. The First Five-Year Plan (FFYP) for the years 1996 to 2000 was introduced in 1996. HP Pavilion G6-1381EA Battery

The World Bank has focused on public sector management, including civil service reform, budget reform, and privatization. Additional priorities for the programs have become attracting diversified private investment, water management, and poverty-oriented social sector improvements. HP Pavilion G6-1391EA Battery

These programs had a positive impact on Yemen’s economy and led to the reduction of the budget deficit to less than 3% of gross domestic product (GDP) during the period 1995–1999 and the correction of macro-financial imbalances.[13]

In 1997, HP Pavilion G6-1369EA BatteryIMF and the Yemeni government began medium-term economic reform programs under the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) and Extended Fund Facility (EFF). This program aimed to reduce dependence on the oil sector and to establish a market environment for real non-oil GDP growth and investment in the non-oil sector. HP Pavilion G6-1159SA BatteryIncreasing the growth rate in the non-oil sector was one of the government's most important objectives. Programs also focused on reducing unemployment, strengthening the social safety net, and increasing financial stability. To achieve these reforms, the government and IMF implemented containment of government wages, improvements in revenue collection with the introduction of reforms in tax administration, HP Pavilion G6-1251SA Batteryand a sharp reduction in subsidies bills through increased prices on subsidized goods. As a result, the fiscal cash deficit was reduced from 16% of GDP in 1994 to 0.9% in 1997. This was supported by aid from oil-exporting countries, despite the wide-ranging fluctuations in world oil prices. HP Pavilion G6-1253SA BatteryThe real growth rate in the non-oil sector rose by 5.6% from 1995 to 1997.[14]

Large areas of Yemen are controlled by armed rebel groups rather than the national government.

As a result of the 2011–2012 Yemeni uprising, the constitution of Yemen is expected to be rewritten, and then new elections held in 2014. HP Pavilion G6-1257SA Battery

HP Pavilion G6-1301SA BatteryThe national government administers the capital and largest cities, but some other regions are outside of its grasp, governed by armed militant groups which expanded their control during the chaos of the 2011-2012 uprising. The two major groups are Ansar al-Sharia (a branch or affiliate of Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula), which has declared several "Islamic emirates" in the southern provinces of Abyan and Shabwah, HP Pavilion G6-1303SA Batteryand the Houthis, a Shiite rebel group centered in Sa'dah province.

Yemen is a presidential republic with a bicameral legislature. Under the 1991 constitution, an elected President, an elected 301-seat Assembly of Representatives, and an appointed 111-member Shura Council share power. The President is the head of state, and the Prime Minister is the head of government. HP Pavilion G6-1309EA Battery

 

The 1991 constitution provides that the president be elected by popular vote from at least two candidates endorsed by at least fifteen members of the Parliament. The prime minister, in turn, is appointed by the president and must be approved by two thirds of the Parliament. The presidential term of office is seven years, HP Pavilion G6-1347EA Batteryand the parliamentary term of elected office is six years. Suffrage is universal for people age 18 and older, but only Muslims may hold elected office.[15]

President Ali Abdullah Saleh became the first elected President in reunified Yemen in 1999 (though he had been President of unified Yemen since 1990 and President of North Yemen since 1978). HP Pavilion G6-2014SA Battery

He was re-elected to office in September 2006. Saleh's victory was marked by an election that international observers judged to be "partly free", though the election was accompanied by violence, violations of press freedoms, and allegations of fraud.[16] Parliamentary elections were held in April 2003, HP Pavilion G6-2022SA Batteryand the General People's Congress (GPC) maintained an absolute majority.

The constitution calls for an independent judiciary. The former northern and southern legal codes have been unified. The legal system includes separate commercial courts and a Supreme Court based in Sana'a. HP Pavilion G72-110SA BatterySharia is the main source of laws, with many court cases being debated according to the religious basis of law and many judges being religious scholars as well as legal authorities.As of February 2004, Yemen is divided into twenty governorates (muhafazat) and one municipality called "Amanat Al-Asemah" (the latter containing the capital, Sana'a)[17] HP Pavilion G72-130SA Battery

Aden was occupied by the Portuguese between 1513 and 1538, and again from 1547 to 1548. In between those Portuguese occupations, Aden was ruled by the Ottoman Empire; it ruled Aden again from 1548 to 1645. After Ottoman rule, it was ruled by the Sultanate of Lahej, under suzerainty of the Zaidi Imams of Yemen. HP Pavilion G72-A10SA Battery

In 1838, Sultan Muhsin bin Fadl of the nearby state of Lahej ceded 194 km2 (75 sq mi) including Aden to the British. On 19 January 1839, the British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden to occupy the territory and stop attacks by pirates against British shipping to India.

The geography and ruling Imams of North Yemen kept the country isolated from foreign influence before 1962HP Pavilion G72-102SA Battery. The country's relations with Saudi Arabia were defined by the Taif Agreement of 1934, which delineated the northernmost part of the border between the two kingdoms and set the framework for commercial and other intercourse. The Taif Agreement has been renewed periodically in 20-year increments, and its validity was reaffirmed in 1995. HP Pavilion G72-105SA BatteryRelations with the British colonial authorities in Aden and the south were usually tense.

The Soviet and Chinese Aid Missions established in 1958 and 1959 were the first important non-Muslim presence in North Yemen. Following the September 1962 revolution, HP Pavilion G72-A20SA Batterythe Yemen Arab Republic became closely allied with and heavily dependent upon Egypt. Saudi Arabia aided the royalists in their attempt to defeat the Republicans and did not recognize the Yemen Arab Republic until 1970. At the same time, Saudi Arabia maintained direct contact with Yemeni tribes, HP Pavilion G72-A30SA Batterywhich sometimes strained its official relations with the Yemeni Government. Hundreds of thousands of Yemenis found employment in Saudi Arabia during the late 1970s and 1980s.

In February 1989, North Yemen joined Iraq, Jordan, and Egypt in forming the Arab Cooperation Council (ACC), HP Pavilion G72-A40SA Batteryan organization created partly in response to the founding of the Gulf Cooperation Council and intended to foster closer economic cooperation and integration among its members. After unification, the Republic of Yemen was accepted as a member of the ACC in place of its YAR predecessor. In the wake of the Persian Gulf crisis, HP Pavilion G72-B01EA Batterythe ACC has remained inactive. Yemen is not a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council.

British authorities left southern Yemen in November 1967 in the wake of an intense rebellion. The People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, the successor to British rule, had diplomatic relations with many states, but its major links were with the Soviet Union and other communist countries. HP Pavilion G72-B01SA Battery Relations between it and the conservative Arab states of the Arabian Peninsula were strained. There were military clashes with Saudi Arabia in 1969 and 1973, and the PDRY provided active support for the Dhofar rebellion against the Sultanate of Oman. The PDRY was the only Arab state to vote against admitting new Arab states from the Persian Gulf area to the United Nations and the Arab League. HP Pavilion G72-B02SA Battery

The PDRY provided sanctuary and material support to various insurgent groups around the Middle East.[citation needed]

Yemen is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and also participates in the nonaligned movement. HP Pavilion G72-B15SA Battery

The Republic of Yemen accepted responsibility for all treaties and debts of its predecessors, the YAR and the PDRY. Yemen has acceded to the nuclear nonproliferation treaty.

The Persian Gulf crisis dramatically affected Yemen's foreign relations. A long-time ally of Saddam Hussein, Yemen's President, HP Pavilion G72-B20SA BatteryAli Abdullah Saleh was quick to back Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait in 1990.[20] As a member of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) for 1990 and 1991, Yemen continued to abstain on a number of UNSC resolutions concerning Iraq and Kuwait[10] and voted against the "use of force resolution." Western and Gulf Arab states reacted by curtailing or canceling aid programs and diplomatic contacts. HP Pavilion DV6-6153EA Battery

At least 850,000 Yemenis were expelled from Saudi Arabia and the other Gulf Arab states. Saudi Arabia has begun construction of a separation barrier between its territory and Yemen to prevent the unauthorized movement of people and goods into and out of the kingdom.

Subsequent to the liberation of Kuwait, HP Pavilion DV6-6153SA BatteryYemen continued to maintain high-level contacts with Iraq. This hampered its efforts to rejoin the Arab mainstream and to mend fences with its immediate neighbors. In 1993, Yemen launched an unsuccessful diplomatic offensive to restore relations with its Gulf Arab neighbors. Some of its aggrieved neighbors actively aided the south during the 1994 civil war. HP Pavilion DV6-6B55SA Battery

Since the end of that conflict, tangible progress has been made on the diplomatic front in restoring normal relations with Yemen's neighbors. The Omani-Yemeni border has been officially demarcated. In the summer of 2000, HP Pavilion DV6-6B057SA Battery

Yemen and Saudi Arabia signed an International Border Treaty settling a 50 year old dispute over the location of the border between the two countries. Yemen settled its dispute with Eritrea over the Hanish Islands in 1998.

After the departure from the Gulf Arab states, HP Pavilion DV6-6B60SA Batteryas many as 15,000 Yemenis migrated to the U.S. Many Yemenis can be found in the south of Dearborn, Michigan. In the early 1990s, Yemenis went in search of manufacturing jobs. They continue to work in the U.S. and routinely send money back to their families.

Kidnapping of foreign tourists by tribes has been an ongoing problem throughout the modern period.[21] HP Pavilion DV6-6C05EA BatteryIn many instances, the kidnappers attempted to use hostage taking to gain leverage in negotiations with the government. One victim of kidnapping was former German Secretary of State Jürgen Chrobog, a man who himself had conducted negotiations with kidnappers while in office.[22] In June 2009, HP Pavilion DV6-6C57EA Batterya group of nine foreign tourists were kidnapped near the city of Saada. Seven were killed and two children survived.[21]

Yemen has historically enjoyed good relations with Somalia, its neighbour to the south and fellow Arab League member. Ethnic Somalis for the most part blend in well with Yemeni society, as they share centuries of close religious, HP Pavilion DV6-1333SA Battery commercial and social ties. Following the outbreak of the civil war in Somalia, Yemen unconditionally opened its borders to Somali asylum seekers. The World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, estimates that 110,600 Somali refugees lived in Yemen in 2007,[23] which is a fraction of the estimated 700,000-strong Somali nationals already living and working in Yemen.[24] HP Pavilion DV6-3175SA Battery

There are also many Somalis who have received Yemeni citizenship due to marriage with Yemenis as well as through service to the nation over the years. In addition, Yemen and Somalia have a long history of trade and inter-action, with many of Somalia's Sultans, such as Yusuf Ali Kenadid and Gerad Ali Dable, HP Pavilion DV6-6152SA Batteryoften being exiled to and recruiting troops from Yemen's Hadhramaut region. Somalia has also over the centuries seen successive waves of immigration from Yemen, with Hadhrami settlers being instrumental in helping to consolidate the Muslim community in the coastal Benadir region in particular.[25] During the colonial period, HP Pavilion DV6-3185SA Batterydisgruntled Yemenis from the Hadhrami wars additionally sought and received asylum in various Somali towns.[26]

Yemen also maintains good relations with Djibouti, its other predominantly Somali neighbor to the west across the Red Sea. With a rapidly expanding economy, a stable government, huge investments from fellow Persian Gulf Arab states, HP Pavilion dv6-3111sa Batteryand a strategic maritime location in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, Djibouti stands as an important ally. While Djibouti is largely inhabited by Somalis, it is separate from the Somali Republic and holds its own seats in the United Nations and the League of Arab States. On 22 February 2008, HP Pavilion dv6-3048sa Batterythe BBC reported that a company owned by Tarek bin Laden was planning to build a bridge across the Bab el Mandeb, linking Yemen with Djibouti.[27][28]

Since 2004, a civil war has been fought in Northern Yemen between Yemeni forces and Shiite Houthi rebels. In 2009, the war spilled over into the neighboring border region of Saudi Arabia. HP Pavilion dv6-3032sa BatteryThis conflict is increasingly becoming a danger to regional stability, according to news reports by CNN[29] and the BBC,[30] as various countries are said to be involved, e.g. Iran, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Jordan.[31] The United Nations[32] and UNDP Yemen report a growing problem of civilians fleeing from the region. Yemen is said to have more than 60 million guns.[33] HP Pavilion dv6-3046sa BatteryThe South Yemen insurgency has further destabilized the country.

Some news reports have suggested that, on orders from United States President Barack Obama, US warplanes fired cruise missiles at what officials in Washington claimed were Al Qaeda training camps in the provinces of Sana’a and Abyan on December 17, 2009.[34] HP Pavilion dv6-3056sa BatteryOther reports suggest that the airstrikes were carried out by Yemeni Mig-29 aircraft, probably helped by US intelligence,[35] or that cruise missiles were launched from warships offshore.[36] Officials in Yemen said that the attacks claimed the lives of more than 60 civilians, 28 of them children. Another airstrike was carried out on 24 December.[37] HP Pavilion dv6-3068ea BatteryOn 3 January 2010, the U.S. and British embassies in Yemen closed for security reasons after the failed plot to bomb a plane in Detroit and after reports of eight individuals planning an attack on the embassy itself. One was arrested with a suicide vest, while three others were killed. Four remained at large as of 4 January 2010.[38]

Despite these tensions between the US and Yemen, HP Pavilion dv6-3112sa Batteryas well as increasing worries about terrorism in Yemen, President Obama has stated that he has no plans to introduce US military forces into the country, a sentiment that was echoed by US General David Petraeus. However, the terrorism worries seemed justified as a foiled terrorist plot was apparently conceived in Yemen. HP Pavilion dv6-3116sa BatteryInstead of military intervention, the US government intends to increase military aid to $140 million in 2010.[39]

The geopolitical significance of Yemen (primarily its straits and oil fields) keeps this country in the sphere of U.S. strategic interests. Control over the Aden port – the "gate to Asia" – brings huge benefits to the USA and opens infinite possibilities for maneuvering in front of them. HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa Battery

However, America is not the only nation to be interested in Yemen. China is trying hard to expand its influence in the Indian Ocean by associating with countries across the region including Yemen.

The population of Yemen was about 24 million according to June 2011 estimates, with 46% of the population being under 15 years old and 2.7% above 65 years. HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa Battery

In 1950, it was 4.3 million.[40][41] By 2050, the population is estimated to increase to about 60 million.[42] Yemen has a high total fertility rate, at 4.45 children per woman, it is the 30th highest in the world.[43] Although this is lower than the rate in Somalia to the south, HP Pavilion dv6-3123sa Batteryit is roughly twice as high as that of Saudi Arabia and nearly three times as high as those in the more modernized Persian Gulf states. Yemen's population is increasing by 700,000 every year.

 

Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university located in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States.

Incorporated as the "Collegiate School," Sony VGN-SR39VN/S Batterythe institution traces its roots to 17th-century clergymen who sought to establish a college to train clergy and political leaders for the colony. In 1718, the College was renamed "Yale College" to honor a gift from Elihu Yale, a governor of the British East India Company. In 1861, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences became the first U.S. school to award the PhD.[7] Sony VPCF13M1E/B BatteryYale became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. Yale College was transformed, beginning in the 1930s, through the establishment of residential colleges: 12 now exist and two more are planned. Yale employs over 1,100 faculty to teach and advise about 5,300 undergraduate and 6,100 graduate and professional students. Sony VPCF11C4E/B BatteryAlmost all tenured professors teach undergraduate courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually.[8][9]

The University's assets include a US $19.4 billion endowment,[10] the second-largest of any academic institution. Yale libraries hold 12.5 million volumes in more than two dozen libraries.[11] 49 Nobel Laureates have been affiliated with the University as students, faculty, Sony VPCF13Z8E Batteryand staff. Yale has produced many notable alumni, including five U.S. Presidents, 19 U.S. Supreme Court Justices, and several foreign heads of state. Yale Law School is particularly well-regarded and the most selective law school in the United States.[12]

Yalies compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I Ivy League. Sony VPCF13Z8E/BI BatteryYale and Harvard University share a strong athletic rivalry, which traditionally culminates in The Game and the Harvard-Yale Regatta. The official color of the university and its athletic teams is Yale Blue.Yale traces its beginnings to "An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School", passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9, 1701 in an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Sony VPCF12S1E/B BatterySoon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers: Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, James Noyes, James Pierpont, Abraham Pierson, Noadiah Russell, Joseph Webb and Timothy Woodbridge, all of whom were alumni of Harvard, met in the study of Reverend Samuel Russell in Branford, Connecticut, to pool their books to form the school's first library. Sony VPCF12Z1E/BI Battery[13] The group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as "The Founders".

Originally called the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson,[14] in Killingworth (now Clinton). The school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1718, the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut. Sony VPCF13M1E/H Battery

Meanwhile, a rift was forming at Harvard between its sixth president Increase Mather and the rest of the Harvard clergy, whom Mather viewed as increasingly liberal, ecclesiastically lax, and overly broad in Church polity. The feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not.[15] Sony VPCF13V5002B Battery

In 1718, at the behest of either Rector Samuel Andrew or the colony's Governor Gurdon Saltonstall, Cotton Mather contacted a successful businessman in Wales named Elihu Yale to ask him for financial help in constructing a new building for the college. Through the persuasion of Jeremiah Dummer, Yale, Sony VPCF21Z1E/BI Batterywho had made a fortune through trade while living in India as a representative of the East India Company, donated nine bales of goods, which were sold for more than £560, a substantial sum at the time. Yale also donated 417 books and a portrait of King George I. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College in gratitude to its benefactor, Sony VPCF24Q1E Battery and to increase the chances that he would give the college another large donation or bequest. Elihu Yale was away in India when the news of the school's name change reached his home in Wrexham, Wales, a trip from which he never returned. While he did ultimately leave his fortunes to the "Collegiate School within His Majesties Colony of Connecticot",Sony VPCF23QIE Batterythe institution was never able to successfully lay claim to it.

Yale was swept up by the great intellectual movements of the period—the Great Awakening and the Enlightenment—thanks to the religious and scientific interests of presidents Thomas Clap and Ezra Stiles. They were both instrumental in developing the scientific curriculum at Yale, while dealing with wars, student tumults, Sony VPCY21S1E Batterygraffiti, "irrelevance" of curricula, desperate need for endowment, and fights with the Connecticut legislature.[16]

Serious American students of theology and divinity, particularly in New England, regarded Hebrew as a classical language, along with Greek and Latin, and essential for study of the Old Testament in the original words. Sony VPCYA17GH/R BatteryThe Reverend Ezra Stiles, president of the College from 1778 to 1795, brought with him his interest in the Hebrew language as a vehicle for studying ancient Biblical texts in their original language (as was common in other schools), requiring all freshmen to study Hebrew (in contrast to Harvard, where only upperclassmen were required to study the language) Sony VPCCW2Z1E/B Batteryand is responsible for the Hebrew words "Urim" and "Thummim" on the Yale seal. Stiles' greatest challenge occurred in July 1779 when hostile British forces occupied New Haven and threatened to raze the College. Fortunately, Yale graduate Edmund Fanning, Secretary to the British General in command of the occupation, interceded and the College was saved. Sony VPCY11S1E BatteryFanning later was granted an honorary degree LL.D., at 1803,[17] for his efforts.

As the only college in Connecticut, Yale educated the sons of the elite.[18] Offenses for which students were punished included cardplaying, tavern-going, destruction of college property, and acts of disobedience to college authorities. During the period, Harvard was distinctive for the stability and maturity of its tutor corps, Sony VPCY11S1E/S Batterywhile Yale had youth and zeal on its side.[19]

The emphasis on classics gave rise to a number of private student societies, open only by invitation, which arose primarily as forums for discussions of modern scholarship, literature and politics. The first such organizations were debating societies: Crotonia in 1738, Linonia in 1753, and Brothers in Unity in 1768.[20] Sony VPCY11AGJ Battery

The Yale Report of 1828 was a dogmatic defense of the Latin and Greek curriculum against critics who wanted more courses in modern languages, mathematics, and science. Unlike higher education in Europe, there was no national curriculum for colleges and universities in the United States. In the competition for students and financial support, college leaders strove to keep current with demands for innovation. Sony VPCY11AHJ BatteryAt the same time, they realized that a significant portion of their students and prospective students demanded a classical background. The Yale report meant the classics would not be abandoned. At the same time, all institutions experimented with changes in the curriculum, often resulting in a dual track. In the decentralized environment of higher education in the United States, Sony VPCY11AVJ Batterybalancing change with tradition was a common challenge because no one could afford to be completely modern or completely classical.[21] At the same time a group of professors at Yale and New Haven Congregationalist ministers articulated a conservative response to the changes brought about by the Victorian culture. Sony VPCY11M1E Battery

They concentrated on developing a whole man possessed of religious values sufficiently strong to resist temptations from within, yet flexible enough to adjust to the 'isms' (professionalism, materialism, individualism, and consumerism) tempting him from without.[22] Sony VPCY11S1E Battery Perhaps the most well-remembered teacher was William Graham Sumner, professor from 1872 to 1909. He taught in the emerging disciplines of economics and sociology to overflowing classrooms. He bested President Noah Porter, who disliked social science and wanted Yale to lock into its traditions of classical education, Sony VPCY11V9E Battery1879–81. Porter objected to Sumner's use of a textbook by Herbert Spencer that espoused agnostic materialism because it might intellectually, morally, and religiously harm students.[23]

The Revolutionary War hero Nathan Hale (Yale 1773) was the prototype of the Yale ideal in the early 19th century: Sony VPCY11V9E/S Batterya manly yet aristocratic scholar, equally well-versed in knowledge and sports, and a patriot who regretted he had but one life to lose for his country. Western painter Frederic Remington (Yale 1900) was an artist whose heroes gloried in combat and tests of strength in the Wild West. The fictional, turn-of-the-20th-century Yale man Frank Merriwell embodied the heroic ideal without racial prejudice, Sony VPCY219FJ/S Batteryand his fictional successor Frank Stover in the novel Stover at Yale (1911) questioned the business mentality that had become prevalent at the school. Increasingly the students turned to athletic stars as their heroes, especially since winning the big game became the goal of the student body, and the alumni, as well as the team itself.[24] Sony VPCY21AFJ Battery

Along with Harvard and Princeton, Yale students rejected elite British concepts about 'amateurism' in sports and constructed athletic programs that were uniquely American, such as football.[25] The Harvard–Yale football rivalry began in 1875.

Yale's four-oared crew team, posing with 1876 Centennial Regatta trophy, Sony VPCY21AGJ Batterywon at Philadelphia

Between 1892, when Harvard and Yale met in the first intercollegiate debate, and 1909, the year of the first Triangular Debate of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, the rhetoric, symbolism, and metaphors used in athletics were used to frame these early debates. Debates were covered on front pages of college newspapers and emphasized in yearbooks, Sony VPCY21AHJ Batteryand team members even received the equivalent of athletic letters for their jackets. There even were rallies sending off the debating teams to matches. Yet, the debates never attained the broad appeal that athletics enjoyed. One reason may be that debates do not have a clear winner, as is the case in sports, and that scoring is subjective. In addition, Sony VPCY21AVJ Batterywith late 19th-century concerns about the impact of modern life on the human body, athletics offered hope that neither the individual nor the society was coming apart.[26]

In 1909–10, football faced a crisis resulting from the failure of the previous reforms of 1905–06 to solve the problem of serious injuries. Sony VPCY21S1E/L BatteryThere was a mood of alarm and mistrust, and, while the crisis was developing, the presidents of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton developed a project to reform the sport and forestall possible radical changes forced by government upon the sport. President Arthur Hadley of Yale, A. Lawrence Lowell of Harvard, and Woodrow Wilson of Princeton worked to develop moderate changes to reduce injuries. Sony VPCY21S1E/P BatteryTheir attempts, however, were reduced by rebellion against the rules committee and formation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association. The big three had tried to operate independently of the majority, but changes did reduce injuries.[27]

Yale expanded gradually, Sony VPCY21S1E/SI Batteryestablishing the Yale School of Medicine (1810), Yale Divinity School (1822), Yale Law School (1843), Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (1847), the Sheffield Scientific School (1847),[28] and the Yale School of Fine Arts (1869). In 1887, as the college continued to grow under the presidency of Timothy Dwight V, Yale College was renamed Yale University. Sony PCG-31211T BatteryThe university would later add the Yale School of Music (1894), Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies (founded by Gifford Pinchot in 1901), Yale School of Public Health (1915), Yale School of Nursing (1923), Yale School of Drama (1955), Yale Physician Associate Program (1973), and Yale School of Management (1976). It would also reorganize its relationship with the Sheffield Scientific School. Sony PCG-31311T BatteryExpansion caused controversy about Yale's new roles. Noah Porter, moral philosopher, was president from 1871 to 1886. During an age of tremendous expansion in higher education, Porter resisted the rise of the new research university, claiming that an eager embrace of its ideals would corrupt undergraduate education. Sony PCG-51111T Battery Many of Porter's contemporaries criticized his administration, and historians since have disparaged his leadership. Levesque[29] argues Porter was not a simple-minded reactionary, uncritically committed to tradition, but a principled and selective conservative. He did not endorse everything old or reject everything new; rather, Sony PCG-81111T Batteryhe sought to apply long-established ethical and pedagogical principles to a rapidly changing culture. He may have misunderstood some of the challenges of his time, but he correctly anticipated the enduring tensions that have accompanied the emergence and growth of the modern university.

Between 1925 and 1940, philanthropic foundations, Sony PCG-81311T Batteryespecially ones connected with the Rockefellers, contributed about $7 million to support the Yale Institute of Human Relations and the affiliated Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology. The money went toward behavioral science research, which was supported by foundation officers who aimed to "improve mankind" under an informal, Sony VPCF138FC Batteryloosely defined human engineering effort. The behavioral scientists at Yale, led by President James R. Angell and psychobiologist Robert M. Yerkes, tapped into foundation largesse by crafting research programs aimed to investigate, then suggest, ways to control, Sony VPCF219FC Batterysexual and social behavior. For example, Yerkes analyzed chimpanzee sexual behavior in hopes of illuminating the evolutionary underpinnings of human development and providing information that could ameliorate dysfunction. Ultimately, the behavioral-science results disappointed foundation officers, who shifted their human-engineering funds toward biological sciences.[30] Sony VPCS135EC Battery

Slack (2003) compares three groups that conducted biological research at Yale during overlapping periods between 1910 and 1970. Yale proved important as a site for this research. The leaders of these groups were Ross Granville Harrison, Grace E. Pickford, and G. Evelyn Hutchinson, and their members included both graduate students and more experienced scientists. Sony VPCS136EC BatteryAll produced innovative research, including the opening of new subfields in embryology, endocrinology, and ecology, respectively, over a long period of time. Harrison's group is shown to have been a classic research school; Pickford's and Hutchinson's were not. Pickford's group was successful in spite of her lack of departmental or institutional position or power. Sony VPCS138EC BatteryHutchinson and his graduate and postgraduate students were extremely productive, but in diverse areas of ecology rather than one focused area of research or the use of one set of research tools. Hutchinson's example shows that new models for research groups are needed, especially for those that include extensive field research.[31] Sony VPCS139GC Battery

Milton Winternitz led Yale Medical School as its dean from 1920 to 1935. An innovative, even maverick, leader, he not only kept the school from going under but also turned it into a first-class research institution. Dedicated to the new scientific medicine established in Germany, he was equally fervent about "social medicine" Sony VPCYA15EC Batteryand the study of humans in their culture and environment. He established the "Yale System" of teaching, with few lectures and fewer exams, and strengthened the full-time faculty system; he also created the graduate-level Yale School of Nursing and the Psychiatry Department, built numerous new buildings, and accomplished much more. Sony VPCYA16EC BatteryProgress toward his plans for an Institute of Human Relations, envisioned as a refuge where social scientists would collaborate with biological scientists in a holistic study of humankind, unfortunately lasted for only a few years before the opposition of resentful anti-Semitic colleagues drove him to resign.[32] Sony VPCYA25EC Battery

Before World War II, most elite university faculties counted among their numbers few, if any, Jews, blacks, women, or other minorities; Yale was no exception. By 1980, this condition had been altered dramatically, as numerous members of those groups held faculty positions.[33]

The American studies program reflected the worldwide anti-Communist ideological struggle. Sony VPCYA26EC BatteryNorman Holmes Pearson, who worked for the Office of Strategic Studies in London during World War II, returned to Yale and headed the new American studies program, in which scholarship quickly became an instrument of promoting liberty. Popular among undergraduates, the program sought to instruct them in the fundamentals of American civilization and thereby instill a sense of nationalism and national purpose. Sony VPCYB15JC Battery[34] Also during the 1940s and 1950s, Wyoming millionaire William R. Coe made large contributions to the American studies programs at Yale University and at the University of Wyoming. Coe was concerned to celebrate the 'values' of the Western United States in order to meet the "threat of communism."[35] Sony VGN-SR39XN/S Battery

Women studied at Yale University as early as 1876, in graduate-level programs at the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.In 1966, Yale began discussions with its sister school Vassar College about merging to foster coeducation at the undergraduate level. Vassar, then all-female, declined the invitation. Sony VGN-SR29VN/S BatteryBoth schools introduced coeducation independently in 1969.[36] Amy Solomon was the first woman to register as a Yale undergraduate;[37] she was also the first woman at Yale to join an undergraduate society, St. Anthony Hall.

A decade into co-education, rampant student assault and harassment by faculty became the impetus for the trailblazing lawsuit Alexander v. Yale. Sony VGN-SR29XN/S BatteryWhile unsuccessful in the courts, the legal reasoning behind the case changed the landscape of sex discrimination law and resulted in the establishment of Yale's Grievance Board and the Yale Women's Center.[38] In March 2011 a Title IX suit was filed against Yale.[39]Yale, like other Ivy League schools, Sony VGN-SR31M/S Batteryinstituted policies in the early 20th century designed artificially to increase the proportion of white Protestants of notable families in the student body (see numerus clausus), and was one of the last of the Ivies to eliminate such preferences, beginning with the class of 1970.[40]

Yale has a complicated relationship with its home city; for example, thousands of students volunteer every year in a myriad of community organizations, Sony VGN-SR19VN Batterybut city officials, who decry Yale's exemption from local property taxes, have long pressed the university to do more to help. Under President Levin, Yale has financially supported many of New Haven's efforts to reinvigorate the city. Evidence suggests that the town and gown relationships are mutually beneficial. Still, Sony VGN-SR19XN Battery the economic power of the university increased dramatically with its financial success amid a decline in the local economy.[41]

In 2007, Yale President Rick Levin characterized Yale's institutional priorities: "First, among the nation's finest research universities, Yale is distinctively committed to excellence in undergraduate education. Second, in our graduate and professional schools, Sony VGN-SR21M/S Batteryas well as in Yale College, we are committed to the education of leaders."[42]

The Boston Globe wrote that "if there's one school that can lay claim to educating the nation's top national leaders over the past three decades, it's Yale."[43] Yale alumni were represented on the Democratic or Republican ticket in every U.S. Presidential election between 1972 and 2004. Yale-educated Presidents since the end of the Vietnam War include Gerald Ford, Sony VGN-SR3CW/B BatteryGeorge H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush, and major-party nominees during this period include John Kerry (2004), Joseph Lieberman (Vice President, 2000), and Sargent Shriver (Vice President, 1972). Other Yale alumni who made serious bids for the Presidency during this period include Hillary Rodham Clinton (2008), Howard Dean (2004), Gary Hart (1984 and 1988), Sony VGN-SR3S1 BatteryPaul Tsongas (1992), Pat Robertson (1988) and Jerry Brown (1976, 1980, 1992).

Several explanations have been offered for Yale’s representation in national elections since the end of the Vietnam War. Various sources note the spirit of campus activism that has existed at Yale since the 1960s, and the intellectual influence of Reverend William Sloane Coffin on many of the future candidates.[44] Sony VGN-SR41M/P BatteryYale President Richard Levin attributes the run to Yale’s focus on creating "a laboratory for future leaders," an institutional priority that began during the tenure of Yale Presidents Alfred Whitney Griswold and Kingman Brewster.[44] Richard H. Brodhead, Sony VGN-SR41M/S Batteryformer dean of Yale College and now president of Duke University, stated: "We do give very significant attention to orientation to the community in our admissions, and there is a very strong tradition of volunteerism at Yale."[43] Yale historian Gaddis Smith notes "an ethos of organized activity" at Yale during the 20th century that led John Kerry to lead the Yale Political Union's Liberal Party, Sony VGN-SR41M/W BatteryGeorge Pataki the Conservative Party, and Joseph Lieberman to manage the Yale Daily News.[45] Camille Paglia points to a history of networking and elitism: "It has to do with a web of friendships and affiliations built up in school."[46] CNN suggests that George W. Bush benefited from preferential admissions policies for the "son and grandson of alumni, Sony VGN-SR49VN/H Battery" and for a "member of a politically influential family."[47] New York Times correspondent Elisabeth Bumiller and The Atlantic Monthly correspondent James Fallows credit the culture of community and cooperation that exists between students, faculty, and administration, which downplays self-interest and reinforces commitment to others.[48] Sony VGN-SR51B/P Battery

During the 1988 presidential election, George H. W. Bush (Yale '48) derided Michael Dukakis for having "foreign-policy views born in Harvard Yard's boutique." When challenged on the distinction between Dukakis's Harvard connection and his own Yale background, he said that, unlike Harvard, Yale's reputation was "so diffuse, Sony VGN-SR51B/S Battery

Sony VGN-SR51B Battery there isn't a symbol, I don't think, in the Yale situation, any symbolism in it" and said Yale did not share Harvard's reputation for "liberalism and elitism".[49][50] In 2004, Howard Dean stated, "In some ways, I consider myself separate from the other three (Yale) candidates of 2004. Yale changed so much between the class of '68 and the class of '71. My class was the first class to have women in it; Sony VGN-SR51MF/W Batteryit was the first class to have a significant effort to recruit African Americans. It was an extraordinary time, and in that span of time is the change of an entire generation".[51]

In 2009, former British Prime Minister Tony Blair picked Yale as one location – the others are Britain's Durham University and Universiti Teknologi Mara – for the Tony Blair Faith Foundation's United States Faith and Globalization Initiative.[52] As of 2009, Sony VGN-SR51MF Batteryformer Mexican President Ernesto Zedillo is the director of the Yale Center for the Study of Globalization and teaches an undergraduate seminar, "Debating Globalization".[53] As of 2009, former presidential candidate and DNC chair Howard Dean teaches a residential college seminar, "Understanding Politics and Politicians."[54] Also, Sony VGN-SR45H/B Batteryin 2009, an alliance was formed between Yale, University College London and both schools’ affiliated hospital complexes to conduct research focused on the direct improvement of patient care—a growing field known as translational medicine. President Richard Levin noted that Yale has hundreds of other partnerships across the world, Sony VGN-SR45H/N Batterybut "no existing collaboration matches the scale of the new partnership with UCL."[55]

The President and Fellows of Yale College, also known as the Yale Corporation, is the governing board of the University.Yale's president Richard C. Levin is one of the highest paid university presidents in the United States with a 2008 salary of $1.5 million.[56] Sony VGN-SR45H/P Battery

The Yale Provost's Office has launched several women into prominent university presidencies. In 1977, Hanna Holborn Gray was appointed acting President of Yale from this position, and went on to become President of the University of Chicago, the first woman to be full president of a major university. In 1994, HP Pavilion dv6-1013ea BatteryYale Provost Judith Rodin became the first female president of an Ivy League institution at the University of Pennsylvania. In 2002, Provost Alison Richard became the Vice Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. In 2004, Provost Susan Hockfield became the President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. HP Pavilion dv6-1010ea BatteryIn 2007, Deputy Provost Kim Bottomly was named President of Wellesley College.

In 2008, Provost Andrew Hamilton was confirmed to be the Vice Chancellor of the University of Oxford.[57] Former Dean of Yale College Richard H. Brodhead serves as the President of Duke

Much of Yale University's staff, HP Pavilion dv6-1005ea Batteryincluding most maintenance staff, dining hall employees, and administrative staff, are unionized. Clerical and technical employees are represented by Local 34 of Unite Here and service and maintenance workers by Local 35 of the same international. Together with the Graduate Employees and Students Organization (GESO), an unrecognized union of graduate employees, HP Pavilion dv6-1025ef BatteryLocals 34 and 35 make up the Federation of Hospital and University Employees. Also included in FHUE are the dietary workers at Yale-New Haven Hospital, who are members of 1199 SEIU.[58] In addition to these unions, officers of the Yale University Police Department are members of the Yale Police Benevolent Association, HP Pavilion dv6-1108ca Battery which affiliated in 2005 with the Connecticut Organization for Public Safety Employees.[59] Finally, Yale security officers voted to join the International Union of Security, Police and Fire Professionals of America in fall 2010 after the National Labor Relations Board ruled they could not join AFSCME; the Yale administration contested the election.[60] HP Pavilion dv6-1108ca Battery

Yale has a history of difficult and prolonged labor negotiations, often culminating in strikes.[61] There have been at least eight strikes since 1968, and The New York Times wrote that Yale has a reputation as having the worst record of labor tension of any university in the U.S.[62] Yale's unusually large endowment exacerbates the tension over wages. HP Pavilion dv6-2010sa BatteryMoreover, Yale has been accused of failing to treat workers with respect.[63] In a 2003 strike, however, the university claimed that more union employees were working than striking.[64] Professor David Graeber was 'retired' after he came to the defense of a student who was involved in campus labor issues.[65]   HP Pavilion dv6t Battery

Yale's central campus in downtown New Haven covers 260 acres (1.1 km2). An additional 500 acres (2.0 km2) includes the Yale golf course and nature preserves in rural Connecticut and Horse Island.[66]

Yale is noted for its largely Collegiate Gothic campus[67] as well as for several iconic modern buildings commonly discussed in architectural history survey courses:   HP Pavilion dv6t-1000 BatteryLouis Kahn's Yale Art Gallery[68] and Center for British Art, Eero Saarinen's Ingalls Rink and Ezra Stiles and Morse Colleges, and Paul Rudolph's Art & Architecture Building. Yale also owns and has restored many noteworthy 19th-century mansions along Hillhouse Avenue, which was considered the most beautiful street in America by Charles Dickens when he visited the United States in the 1840s.   HP Pavilion dv6t-1100 Battery

Many of Yale's buildings were constructed in the Collegiate Gothic architecture style from 1917 to 1931, financed largely by Edward S. Harkness[69] Stone sculpture built into the walls of the buildings portray contemporary college personalities such as a writer, an athlete, a tea-drinking socialite,   HP Pavilion dv6z Batteryand a student who has fallen asleep while reading. Similarly, the decorative friezes on the buildings depict contemporary scenes such as policemen chasing a robber and arresting a prostitute (on the wall of the Law School), or a student relaxing with a mug of beer and a cigarette. The architect,   HP Pavilion dv6z-1000 BatteryJames Gamble Rogers, faux-aged these buildings by splashing the walls with acid,[70] deliberately breaking their leaded glass windows and repairing them in the style of the Middle Ages, and creating niches for decorative statuary but leaving them empty to simulate loss or theft over the ages. In fact, the buildings merely simulate Middle Ages architecture,   HP Pavilion dv6-1148ca Battery for though they appear to be constructed of solid stone blocks in the authentic manner, most actually have steel framing as was commonly used in 1930. One exception is Harkness Tower, 216 feet (66 m) tall, which was originally a free-standing stone structure. It was reinforced in 1964 to allow the installation of the Yale Memorial Carillon. HP Pavilion dv6-1210SA BatteryOther examples of the Gothic (also called neo-Gothic and collegiate Gothic) style are on Old Campus by such architects as Henry Austin, Charles C. Haight and Russell Sturgis. Several are associated with members of the Vanderbilt family, including Vanderbilt Hall,[71] Phelps Hall,[72] St. Anthony Hall (a commission for member Frederick William Vanderbilt),   HP Pavilion dv6-1215SA Battery

the Mason, Sloane and Osborn laboratories, dormitories for the Sheffield Scientific School (the engineering and sciences school at Yale until 1956) and elements of Silliman College, the largest residential college.[73]

The oldest building on campus,   HP Pavilion dv6-1120EA BatteryConnecticut Hall (built in 1750), is in the Georgian style. Georgian-style buildings erected from 1929 to 1933 include Timothy Dwight College, Pierson College, and Davenport College, except the latter's east, York Street façade, which was constructed in the Gothic style.

The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library,   HP Pavilion dv6-1120SA Battery

  HP Pavilion dv6-1140EA Battery designed by Gordon Bunshaft of Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill, is one of the largest buildings in the world reserved exclusively for the preservation of rare books and manuscripts.[74] It is located near the center of the University in Hewitt Quadrangle, which is now more commonly referred to as "Beinecke Plaza". HP Pavilion dv6-1210EA Battery

The library's six-story above-ground tower of book stacks is surrounded by a windowless rectangular building with walls made of translucent Vermont marble, which transmit subdued lighting to the interior and provide protection from direct light, while glowing from within after dark.   HP Pavilion dv6-1216SA Battery

The sculptures in the sunken courtyard by Isamu Noguchi are said to represent time (the pyramid), the sun (the circle), and chance (the cube).

Alumnus Eero Saarinen, Finnish-American architect of such notable structures as the Gateway Arch in St. Louis,   HP Pavilion dv6-1330SA BatteryWashington Dulles International Airport main terminal, Bell Labs Holmdel Complex and the CBS Building in Manhattan, designed Ingalls Rink at Yale and the newest residential colleges of Ezra Stiles and Morse. These latter were modelled after the medieval Italian hilltown of San Gimignano – a prototype chosen for the town's pedestrian-friendly milieu and fortress-like stone towers.   HP Pavilion dv6-2110EA BatteryThese tower forms at Yale act in counterpoint to the college's many Gothic spires and Georgian cupolas.[75]Yale's Office of Sustainability develops and implements sustainability practices at Yale.[76] Yale is committed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions 10% below 1990 levels by the year 2020. As part of this commitment,   HP Pavilion dv6-2114A Batterythe university allocates renewable energy credits to offset some of the energy used by residential colleges.[77] Eleven campus buildings are candidates for LEED design and certification.[78] Yale Sustainable Food Project initiated the introduction of local, organic vegetables, fruits, and beef to all residential college dining halls.[79]   HP Pavilion dv6-2112SA BatteryYale was listed as a Campus Sustainability Leader on the Sustainable Endowments Institute’s College Sustainability Report Card 2008, and received a “B+” grade overall.[80]

Notable nonresidential campus buildings and landmarks include Battell Chapel, Beinecke Rare Book Library, Harkness Tower, Ingalls Rink,   HP Pavilion dv5-1008ca BatteryKline Biology Tower, Osborne Memorial Laboratories, Payne Whitney Gymnasium, Peabody Museum of Natural History, Sterling Hall of Medicine, Sterling Law Buildings, Sterling Memorial Library, Woolsey Hall, Yale Center for British Art, Yale University Art Gallery, and Yale Art & Architecture Building.

Yale's secret society buildings (some of which are called "tombs") were built both to be private yet unmistakable. Sony VPCF117FJ BatteryA diversity of architectural styles is represented: Berzelius, Donn Barber in an austere cube with classical detailing (erected in 1908 or 1910); Book and Snake, Louis R. Metcalfe in a Greek Ionic style (erected in 1901); Elihu, architect unknown but built in a Colonial style (constructed on an early 17th century foundation although the building is from the 18th century); Sony VPCF117HG/BI BatteryMace and Chain, in a late colonial, early Victorian style (built in 1823). Interior moulding is said to have belonged to Benedict Arnold; Manuscript Society, King Lui-Wu with Dan Kniley responsible for landscaping and Josef Albers for the brickwork intaglio mural. Building constructed in a mid-century modern style; Scroll and Key, Richard Morris Hunt in a Moorish- or Islamic-inspired Beaux-Arts style (erected 1869–70); Sony VPCF118FJ BatterySkull and Bones, possibly Alexander Jackson Davis or Henry Austin in an Egypto-Doric style utilizing Brownstone (in 1856 the first wing was completed, in 1903 the second wing, 1911 the Neo-Gothic towers in rear garden were completed); St. Elmo, (former tomb) Kenneth M. Murchison, 1912, Sony VPCF119FC Batterydesigns inspired by Elizabethan manor. Current location, brick colonial; and Wolf's Head, Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue (erected 1923-4).

In addition to the Yale University Police Department, founded in 1894,[81] a variety of safety services are available including blue phones, a safety escort, and a shuttle service.[82]

In the 1970s and 1980s, poverty and violent crime rose in New Haven, Sony VPCF119FJ Batterydampening Yale's student and faculty recruiting efforts.[83] Between 1990 and 2006, New Haven's crime rate fell by half, helped by a community policing strategy by the New Haven police and Yale's campus became the safest among the Ivy League and other peer schools.[84] Nonetheless, across the board, Sony VPCF11AFJ Batterythe city of New Haven has retained the highest levels of crime of any Ivy League city for more than a decade.[85]

In 2002–04, Yale reported 14 violent crimes (homicide, aggravated assault, or sex offenses), when Harvard reported 83 such incidents, Princeton 24, and Stanford 54. The incidence of nonviolent crime (burglary, arson, and motor vehicle theft) was also lower than most of its peer schools. Sony VPCF11AGJ Battery

In 2004, a national non-profit watchdog group called Security on Campus filed a complaint with the Department of Education, accusing Yale of under-reporting rape and sexual assaults.[86][87]

Yale University's Sterling Memorial Library, as seen from Maya Lin's sculpture, Women's Table. The sculpture records the number of women enrolled at Yale over its history; Sony VPCF11AHJ Batteryfemale undergraduates were not admitted until 1969.

For the Class of 2016, Yale accepted 1,975 students out of a record 28,975 total applications, hitting a record-low acceptance of 6.8%.[88]

The university is one of only seven institutions of higher education in the world that is need blind and full-need to all of its applicants, Sony VPCF11JFX/B Batteryincluding international students.[89] Through its program of need-based financial aid, Yale commits to meet the full demonstrated financial need of all applicants, and more than 50% of Yale students receive financial assistance. Most financial aid is in the form of grants and scholarships that do not need to be paid back to the university, Sony VPCF11M1E Battery and the average scholarship for the 2011–2012 school year was $35,400. More than 750 students in Yale College are expected to have $0 parental contribution.

Half of all Yale undergraduates are women, more than 30% are minorities, and 8% are international students. Fifty-five percent attended public schools and 45% attended private, religious, or international schools.[90] Sony VPCF11M1E/H BatteryIn addition, Yale College admits a small group of nontraditional students each year, through the Eli Whitney Students Program.

Yale University Library, which holds over 12 million volumes, is the second-largest university collection in the United States.[91] The main library, Sterling Memorial Library, contains about four million volumes, and other holdings are dispersed at subject libraries. Sony VPCF11S1E BatteryRare books are found in a number of Yale collections. The Beinecke Rare Book Library has a large collection of rare books and manuscripts. The Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library includes important historical medical texts, including an impressive collection of rare books, as well as historical medical instruments. Sony VPCF11Z1E Battery

The Lewis Walpole Library contains the largest collection of 18th-century British literary works. The Elizabethan Club, technically a private organization, makes its Elizabethan folios and first editions available to qualified researchers through Yale.

Yale's museum collections are also of international stature. Sony VPCF11ZHJ BatteryThe Yale University Art Gallery is the country's first university-affiliated art museum. It contains more than 180,000 works, including old masters and important collections of modern art, in the Swartout and Kahn buildings. The latter, Louis Kahn's first large-scale American work (1953), was renovated and reopened in December 2006. Sony VPCF11C4E/B Battery

The Yale Center for British Art, the largest collection of British art outside of the UK, grew from a gift of Paul Mellon and is housed in another Kahn-designed building.

The Peabody Museum of Natural History in New Haven is used by school children and contains research collections in anthropology, archaeology, Sony VPCF11C5E Batteryand the natural environment. The Yale University Collection of Musical Instruments, affiliated with the Yale School of Music, is perhaps the least well-known of Yale's collections, because its hours of opening are restricted. Sony VPCF11D4E BatteryThe museums also house the artifacts brought to the United States from Peru by Yale history professor Hiram Bingham in his expedition to Machu Picchu in 1912 – when the removal of such artifacts was legal. Peru would now like to have the items returned; Yale has so far declined.[92] In November 2010, a Yale University representative agreed to return the artifacts to a Peruvian university.[93] Sony VPCF11M1E/H Battery

The 'U.S. News & World Report' ranked Yale third among national universities in 2012, as it has for each of the past fifteen years, in every case behind, in either order or tied, Princeton and Harvard.[101] It was ranked fourth in the 2011 QS World University Rankings and tenth in the 2010 Times Higher Education World University Rankings. Sony VPCF11S1E/B Battery(In 2010 Times Higher Education World University Rankings and QS World University Rankings parted ways to produce separate rankings.) Yale had featured in the top five for each of the past four years. The same ranking also named Yale as the fifth best university in the world for arts and humanities. Shanghai Jiao Tong University’s Academic Ranking of World Universities, Sony VPCF115FG/B Batteryplaced Yale at 11 in 2010. ARWU also ranked Yale 25th in Natural Sciences and Mathematics, 76–100th in Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences, 9th in Life and Agriculture Sciences, 21st in Clinical Medicine and Pharmacy and 8th in Social Sciences worldwide.[104] Sony VPCF2 Battery

This article is missing information about research expenditures, government support, physical research plant, notable faculty, notable research programs or groups. This concern has been noted on the talk page where whether or not to include such information may be discussed. (May 2009) Sony VPCF21Z1E Battery

The college is, after normalization for institution size, the tenth-largest baccalaureate source of doctoral degree recipients in the United States, and the largest such source within the Ivy League.[105]Yale's English and Comparative Literature departments were part of the New Criticism movement. Of the New Critics, Sony VPCF22J1E BatteryRobert Penn Warren, W.K. Wimsatt, and Cleanth Brooks were all Yale faculty. Later, the Yale Comparative literature department became a center of American deconstruction. Jacques Derrida, the father of deconstruction, taught at the Department of Comparative Literature from the late seventies to mid-1980s. Sony VPCF22L1E BatterySeveral other Yale faculty members were also associated with deconstruction, forming the so-called "Yale School". These included Paul de Man who taught in the Departments of Comparative Literature and French, J. Hillis Miller, Geoffrey Hartman (both taught in the Departments of English and Comparative Literature), Sony VPCF22M1E Batteryand Harold Bloom (English), whose theoretical position was always somewhat specific, and who ultimately took a very different path from the rest of this group. Yale's history department has also originated important intellectual trends. Sony VPCF22S1E BatteryHistorians C. Vann Woodward and David Brion Davis are credited with beginning in the 1960s and 1970s an important stream of southern historians; likewise, David Montgomery, a labor historian, advised many of the current generation of labor historians in the country. Yale's Music School and Department fostered the growth of Music Theory in the latter half of the 20th century. Sony VPCF22S8E BatteryThe Journal of Music Theory was founded there in 1957; Allen Forte and David Lewin were influential teachers and scholars.

Yale is a medium-sized research university, most of whose students are in the graduate and professional schools. Undergraduates, Sony VPCF23M1E Batteryor Yale College students, come from a variety of ethnic, national, and socio-economic backgrounds. Of the 2010–2011 freshman class, 10% are non-U.S. citizens, while 54% went to public high schools.[106] Yale is also an open campus for the gay community. Sony VPCF23Q1E BatteryIts active LGBT community first received wide publicity in the late 1980s, when Yale obtained a reputation as the "gay Ivy," due largely to a 1987 Wall Street Journal article written by Julie V. Iovine, an alumna and the spouse of a Yale faculty member. During the same year, the University hosted a national conference on gay and lesbian studies and established the Lesbian and Gay Studies Center.[109] Sony VPCF231S1E Battery

The slogan "One in Four, Maybe More" was coined by the campus gay community. While the community in the 1980s and early 1990s was very activist, today most LGBT events have become part of the general campus social scene.[110] For example, the annual LGBT Co-op Dance attracts straight as well as gay students. Sony VPCF23S1E Battery

Yale has a system of 12 residential colleges, instituted in 1933 through a grant by Yale graduate Edward S. Harkness, who admired the college systems at Oxford and Cambridge. Each college has a Dean, Master, affiliated faculty, and resident Fellows. Each college also features distinctive architecture, secluded courtyards, Sony VPCF24M1E Batterya commons room, meeting rooms/classrooms, and a dining hall; in addition some have chapels, libraries, squash courts, pool tables, short order dining counters, cafes, or darkrooms. Each college at Yale offers its own seminars, social events, and Master's Teas, and most of them are open to students from other residential colleges. However, Sony VPCF11S1E BatteryYale remains a unitary university, while Oxford and Cambridge colleges are self-governed charitable institutions in their own right.

The dominant architecture of the residential colleges is Neo-Gothic, in line with the characteristic architecture of the university. Several colleges have other period architecture, such as Georgian and Federal, and the two most recentSony VPCF11C4E/B Battery(Morse and Ezra Stiles) have modernist concrete exteriors.

Students are assigned to a residential college in their freshman year. Only two residential colleges (Silliman and Timothy Dwight) house freshmen. The majority of on-campus freshmen live on the "Old Campus", Sony VPCF11Z1E/BI Batteryan extensive quadrangle formed by older buildings. Each residential college has its own dining hall, but students are permitted to eat in any residential college dining hall or the large dining facility called "Commons."

Berkeley College, named for the Rt. Rev. George Berkeley (1685–1753), early benefactor of Yale.[112]Calhoun College, named for John C. Calhoun, Sony VPCF12E1E/H Batteryvice-president and influential member of Congress of the United States.[114]

Davenport College, named for Rev. John Davenport, the founder of New Haven. Often called "D'port".[115]Ezra Stiles College, named for the Rev. Ezra Stiles, a president of Yale. Generally called "Stiles," Sony VPCF12F4E/H Batterydespite an early-1990s crusade by then-master Traugott Lawler to preserve the use of the full name in everyday speech. Its buildings were designed by Eero Saarinen.[116]

Jonathan Edwards College, named for theologian, Yale alumnus, and Princeton co-founder Jonathan Edwards. Generally called "J.E." The oldest of the residential colleges, J.E. is the only college with an independent endowment, Sony VPCF12M1E/H Batterythe Jonathan Edwards Trust.[117]

Morse College, named for Samuel F. B. Morse, inventor of Morse code and the telegraph. Also designed by Eero Saarinen.[118]Pierson College, named for Yale's first rector, Abraham Pierson.[119] A statue of Abraham Pierson stands on Yale's Old Campus.[120]Saybrook College, named for Old Saybrook, Connecticut, the town in which Yale was founded.[121] Sony VPCF13E4E BatterySilliman College, named for noted scientist and Yale professor Benjamin Silliman. About half of its structures were originally part of the Sheffield Scientific School.[122]Timothy Dwight College, named for the two Yale presidents of that name, Timothy Dwight IV and Timothy Dwight V. Often abbreviated "T.D."[123]In 1998, Sony VPCF13E8E Battery

Yale launched a series of extensive renovations to the older residential buildings, which in many decades of existence had seen only routine maintenance and incremental improvements to plumbing, heating, and electrical and network wiring. Many of these renovations have now been completed, and among other improvements, Sony VPCF13J0E/H Batteryrenovated colleges feature newly built basement facilities including snack bars called "butteries," game rooms, theaters, athletic facilities, fine arts studios, and music practice rooms.

In June 2008, President Levin announced that the Yale Corporation had authorized the construction of two new residential colleges, Sony VPCF1318E/H Batteryscheduled to open in 2013. The additional colleges, to be built in the northern part of the campus, will allow for expanded admission and a reduction of crowding in the existing residential colleges.[125] Designs have been released, and some public controversy has surfaced over Yale's decision to demolish a number of historic buildings on the site, Sony VPCF13M1E/B Batteryincluding a recently constructed library, in order to clear it for the $600 million new structures.[126]

The university hosts a variety of student journals, magazines, and newspapers. The latter categories include the Yale Daily News, which was first published in 1878, the weekly Yale Herald, published since 1986, and The Yale Record, Sony VPCF11C4E/B Batterywhich was established in 1872 and is America's oldest college humor magazine. Dwight Hall, an independent, non-profit community service organization, oversees more than 2,000 Yale undergraduates working on more than 70 community service initiatives in New Haven. Sony VPCF13Z8E Battery

The Yale College Council runs several agencies that oversee campus wide activities and student services. The Yale Dramatic Association and Bulldog Productions cater to the theater and film communities, respectively. In addition, the Yale Drama Coalition serves to coordinate between and provide resources for the various Sudler Fund sponsored theater productions which run each weekend. Sony VPCF13Z8E/BI Battery

The Yale Political Union is advised by alumni political leaders such as John Kerry and George Pataki. The Yale International Relations Association functions as the umbrella organization for the top-ranked Model UN team.

The campus also includes several fraternities and sororities. Sony VPCF12S1E/B Battery

The campus features at least 18 a cappella groups, the most famous of which is The Whiffenpoofs, who are unusual among college singing groups in being made up solely of senior men.

Yale's secret societies include Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake, Elihu, Berzelius, St. Elmo, Manuscript, and Mace and Chain. Sony VPCF12Z1E/BI BatteryThe two oldest existing honor societies are the Aurelian (1910) and the Torch Honor Society (1916).[127]

The Elizabethan Club, a social club, has a membership of undergraduates, graduates, faculty and staff with literary or artistic interests. Membership is by invitation. Members and their guests may enter the "Lizzie's" premises for conversation and tea. Sony VPCF13M1E/H BatteryThe club owns first editions of a Shakespeare Folio, several Shakespeare Quartos, a first edition of Milton's Paradise Lost, among other important literary texts.

Yale seniors at graduation smash clay pipes underfoot to symbolize passage from their "bright college years".[128] ("Bright College Years," Sony VPCF13V5002B Batterythe University's alma mater, was penned in 1881 by Henry Durand, Class of 1881, to the tune of Die Wacht am Rhein.) Yale's student tour guides tell visitors that students consider it good luck to rub the toe of the statue of Theodore Dwight Woolsey on Old Campus. Actual students rarely do so.[129] In the second half of the twentieth century Bladderball, Sony VPCF21Z1E/BI Batterya campus-wide game played with a large inflatable ball, became a popular tradition but was banned by administration due to safety concerns. In spite of administration opposition, students revived the game in 2009 and 2011, but its future remains uncertain.[130]

Yale supports 35 varsity athletic teams that compete in the Ivy League Conference, Sony VPCF24Q1E Batterythe Eastern College Athletic Conference, the New England Intercollegiate Sailing Association. Yale athletic teams compete intercollegiately at the NCAA Division I level. Like other members of the Ivy League, Yale does not offer athletic scholarships.

Yale has numerous athletic facilities, Sony VPCF23QIE Batteryincluding the Yale Bowl (the nation's first natural "bowl" stadium, and prototype for such stadiums as the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and the Rose Bowl), located at The Walter Camp Field athletic complex, and the Payne Whitney Gymnasium, the second-largest indoor athletic complex in the world.[131] October 21, 2000 marked the dedication of Yale's fourth new boathouse in 157 years of collegiate rowing. Sony VPCY21S1E Battery

The Richard Gilder Boathouse is named to honor former Olympic rower Virginia Gilder '79 and her father Richard Gilder '54, who gave $4 million towards the $7.5 million project. Yale also maintains the Gales Ferry site where the heavyweight men's team trains for the Yale-Harvard Boat Race. Sony VPCYA17GH/R Battery

Yale crew is the oldest collegiate athletic team in America, and won Olympic Games Gold Medal for men's eights in 1924 and 1956. The Yale Corinthian Yacht Club, founded in 1881, is the oldest collegiate sailing club in the world.

In 1896, Yale and Johns Hopkins played the first known ice hockey game in the United States. Sony VPCCW2S8E/W BatterySince 2006, the school's ice hockey clubs have played a commemorative game.[132]For kicks, between 1954 and 1982, residential college teams and student organizations played bladderball.[133]Notable among the songs commonly played and sung at events such as commencement, convocation, alumni gatherings, and athletic games are the alma mater, "Bright College Years", and the Yale fight song, "Down the Field." Sony VPCCW2Z1E/B Battery

Two other fight songs, "Bulldog, Bulldog" and "Bingo Eli Yale", written by Cole Porter during his undergraduate days, are still sung at football games. Another fight song sung at games is "Boola Boola". According to “College Fight Songs: An Annotated Anthology” published in 1998, “Down the Field” ranks as the fourth-greatest fight song of all time.[136] Sony VPCY11S1E Battery

The school mascot is "Handsome Dan", the known Yale bulldog, and the Yale fight song (written by Cole Porter while he was a student at Yale) contains the refrain, "Bulldog, bulldog, bow wow wow." The school color, since 1894, is Yale Blue[137]. Yale's Handsome Dan is believed to be the first college mascot in America, having been established in 1889.[138] Sony VPCY11S1E/S Battery

Sony VPCW1 Battery

Yale athletics are supported by the Yale Precision Marching Band. Precision is used here ironically; the band is a scatter-style band that runs wildly between formations rather than actually marching.[139] The band attends every home football game and many away, as well as most hockey and basketball games throughout the winter. Sony VPCW1E8R/BU BatteryYale intramural sports are also a significant aspect of student life. Students compete for their respective residential colleges, fostering a friendly rivalry. The year is divided into fall, winter, and spring seasons, each of which includes about ten different sports. About half the sports are coeducational. At the end of the year, Sony VPCY11AGJ Batterythe residential college with the most points (not all sports count equally) wins the Tyng Cup.

Yale has had many financial supporters, but some stand out by the magnitude or timeliness of their contributions. Sony VPCY11AHJ BatteryAmong those who have made large donations commemorated at the university are: Elihu Yale; Jeremiah Dummer; the Harkness family (Edward, Anna, and William); the Beinecke family (Edwin, Frederick, and Walter); John William Sterling; Payne Whitney; Joseph E. Sheffield, Paul Mellon, Charles B. G. Murphy and William K. Lanman. The Yale Class of 1954, Sony VPCY11AVJ Batteryled by Richard Gilder, donated $70 million in commemoration of their 50th reunion.[140]

[edit]Notable alumni and faculty

Yale has produced alumni distinguished in their respective fields. Among the best-known are U.S. Presidents William Howard Taft, Sony VPCY11M1E BatteryGerald Ford, George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush; Italian premier Mario Monti; Supreme Court Justices Sonia Sotomayor, Samuel Alito and Clarence Thomas; U.S. Secretaries of State Hillary Rodham Clinton and Dean Acheson; Democratic Presidential nominee John Kerry; authors Sinclair Lewis, Stephen Vincent Benét, and Tom Wolfe; Sony VPCY11S1E Batterylexicographer Noah Webster; inventors Samuel F.B. Morse and Eli Whitney; patriot and "first spy" Nathan Hale; theologian Jonathan Edwards; Academy Award winning actors and directors Paul Newman, Vincent Price, Meryl Streep, Jodie Foster, Frances McDormand, Angela Bassett, Elia Kazan, George Roy Hill, Oliver Stone, and Michael Cimino; Sony VPCY11V9E Battery"Father of American football" Walter Camp; composers Charles Ives and Cole Porter; Peace Corps founder Sargent Shriver; child psychologist Benjamin Spock; sculptor Richard Serra; film critic Gene Siskel; television commentators Dick Cavett and Anderson Cooper; pundits William F. Buckley, Jr., and Fareed Zakaria; Time Magazine co-founder Henry Luce; Sony VPCY11V9E/S BatteryPresident of Mexico Ernesto Zedillo; President of the Federal Republic of Germany Karl Carstens; Philippines President José Paciano Laurel; Nobel Laureate in Economics and popular book author Paul Krugman; inventor of the cyclotron and Nobel Laureate in Physics, Ernest Lawrence; director of the Human Genome Project, Francis S. Collins; economist Irving Fischer, Sony VPCY219FJ/S Battery"The Father of Monetarism"; mathematician and chemist Josiah Willard Gibbs; Morgan Stanley founder Harold Stanley; Boeing CEO James McNerney; FedEx founder Frederick W. Smith; Turkish prime minister Tansu Çiller; Time Warner president Jeffrey Bewkes; Electronic Arts co-founder Bing Gordon; architects Eero Saarinen and Norman Foster. Sony VPCY21AFJ Battery

Yale University, one of the oldest universities in the United States, is a cultural referent as an institution that produces some of the most elite members of society[141] and its grounds, alumni, and students have been prominently portrayed in fiction and U.S. popular culture. For example, Owen Johnson's novel, Sony VPCY21AGJ BatteryStover at Yale, follows the college career of Dink Stover[142] and Frank Merriwell, the model for all later juvenile sports fiction, plays football, baseball, crew, and track at Yale while solving mysteries and righting wrongs.[143][144]

The original Latin word "universitas" refers in general to "a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, Sony VPCY21AHJ Batterycommunity, guild, corporation, etc."[2] At the time of the emergence of urban town life and medieval guilds, specialised "associations of students and teachers with collective legal rights usually guaranteed by charters issued by princes, prelates, or the towns in which they were located" came to be denominated by this general term. Like other guilds, Sony VPCY21AVJ Batterythey were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members.[3] The original Latin word referred to degree-granting institutions of learning in Western Europe, where this form of legal organisation was prevalent, and from where the institution spread around the world. Sony VPCY21S1E/L Battery

For non-related educational institutions of antiquity which did not stand in the tradition of the university and to which the term is only loosely and retrospectively applied, see ancient higher-learning institutions.

An important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. Sony VPCY21S1E/P BatteryThe first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university. The University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita,[4] in 1158 or 1155,[5] which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of "academic freedom".[6] This is now widely recognised internationally Sony VPCY21S1E/SI Battery- on 18 September 1988 430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum,[7] marking the 900th anniversary of Bologna's foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, drawing from all parts of the world. Sony VPCCW1E8R/WU Battery

European higher education took place for hundreds of years in Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools (Scholae monasticae), in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the 6th century AD.[8] The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church, Sony VPCCW1S1E Batteryusually from cathedral schools or by papal bull as studia generalia (n.b. The development of cathedral schools into universities actually appears to be quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception — see Leff, Paris and Oxford Universities), later they were also founded by Kings (University of Naples Federico II, Charles University in Prague, Sony VPCCW1S1R BatteryJagiellonian University in Kraków) or municipal administrations (University of Cologne, University of Erfurt). In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Sony VPCCW1S1T BatteryMany historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.[9]

The first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna (1088), the University of Paris (c. 1150, later associated with the Sorbonne), the University of Oxford (1167), Sony VPCCW1S1T/R Batterythe University of Palencia (1208), the University of Cambridge (1209), the University of Salamanca (1218), the University of Montpellier (1220), the University of Padua (1222), the University of Naples Federico II (1224), the University of Toulouse (1229),[10][11] the University of Siena (1240). Sony VPCCW1S1T/W Battery

The University of Bologna began as a law school teaching the ius gentium or Roman law of peoples which was in demand across Europe for those defending the right of incipient nations against empire and church. Bologna’s special claim to Alma Mater Studiorum[clarification needed] is based on its autonomy, Sony VPCCW1Z4E Batteryits awarding of degrees, and other structural arrangements, making it the oldest continuously operating institution[5] independent of kings, emperors or any kind of direct religious authority.[12][13]

The conventional date of 1088, or 1087 according to some,[14] records when a certain Irnerius commences teaching Emperor Justinian’s 6th century codification of Roman law, Sony VPCCW12EN/BU Batterythe Corpus Iuris Civilis, recently discovered at Pisa. Lay students arrived in the city from many lands entering into a contract to gain this knowledge, organising themselves into ‘Learning Nations’ of Hungarians, Greeks, North Africans, Arabs, Franks, Germans, Iberians etc. The students “had all the power … and dominated the masters”.[15][16] HP Pavilion dv6-3111sa BatteryIn Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic or logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. (See Degrees of the University of Oxford for the history of how the trivium and quadrivium developed in relation to degrees, HP Pavilion dv6-3048sa Batteryespecially in anglophone universities).

Universities became popular all over Europe, as rulers and city governments began to create them to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the belief that society would benefit from the scholarly expertise generated from these institutions. Princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefit of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. HP Pavilion dv6-3032sa Battery

The emergence of humanism was essential to this understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts.[17]

The rediscovery of Aristotle's works – more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated – fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the 12th century. HP Pavilion dv6-3046sa BatterySome scholars believe that these works represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history.[18] Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotle's works “a turning point in the history of Western thought."[19] After Aristotle re-emerged, a community of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, HP Pavilion dv6-3056sa Batteryaccelerated the process and practice of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and especially ideas related to understanding the natural world, with those of the church. The efforts of this “scholasticism” were focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts about natural processes to biblical passages and attempting to prove the viability of those passages through reason. HP Pavilion dv6-3068ea Battery

The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, although the northern (primarily Germany, France and Great Britain) and southern universities (primarily Italy) did have many elements in common. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. HP Pavilion dv6-3112sa BatteryProfessors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics; while Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna were used for medicine. Outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, HP Pavilion dv6-3116sa Battery while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. There were distinct differences in the quality of instruction in these areas which were congruent with their focus, so scholars would travel north or south based on their interests and means. There was also a difference in the types of degrees awarded at these universities. English, French and German universities usually awarded bachelor's degrees, HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa Batterywith the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The distinction can be attributed to the intent of the degree holder after graduation – in the north the focus tended to be on acquiring teaching positions, HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa Batterywhile in the south students often went on to professional positions.[20] The structure of Northern Universities tended to be modeled after the system of faculty governance developed at the University of Paris. Southern universities tended to be patterned after the student-controlled model begun at the University of Bologna.[21]

Scholars like Arnold H. Green and Hossein Nasr have argued that starting in the 10th century, HP Pavilion dv6-3123sa Batterysome medieval Islamic madrasahs became universities.[22][23] George Makdisi and others[24], however, argue that the European university has no parallel in the medieval Islamic world.[25] Courtenay et al. partially critique this view by stating similarities between madrasahs and southern European universities.[26] Other scholars regard the university as uniquely European in origin and characteristics.[27][28] HP Pavilion dv6-3298ea Battery

Many scholars (including Makdisi) have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by the religious madrasahs in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East (during the Crusades).[29][30][31] Other scholars see this argument as overstated.[32]

See also: List of early modern universities in Europe and List of colonial universities in Latin AmericaDuring the Early Modern period (approximately late 1400s to 1800), HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa Batterythe universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle Ages, about 400 years after the first university was founded, there were twenty-nine universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, HP Pavilion dv6-3180ea Batterytwenty-eight new ones were created, with another eighteen added between 1500 and 1625.[33] This pace continued until by the end of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe and Eastern Europe, with the highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the end of the Middle Ages. HP Pavilion dv6-3185sa BatteryThis number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time.[34] It should be noted that the identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during the Early Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, HP Pavilion dv6-3180sa Batterythe term “university” was not always used to designate a higher education institution. In Mediterranean countries, the term studium generale was still often used, while “Academy” was common in Northern European countries.[35]

The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as the seventeenth century was rife with events that adversely effected university expansion. Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years' War, HP Pavilion dv6-1132sa Batterydisrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. War, plague, famine, regicide, and changes in religious power and structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa Batteryacted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and the continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts.[36] This era was also affected by the rise of the nation-state. As universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under the auspices of the state, HP Pavilion dv6-3103sa Batterythe faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural organization. Control of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership was increasingly appointed by the state.[37] HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa BatteryAlthough the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty “masters,” provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at least three different forms. HP Pavilion dv6-6b57sa Battery

 There were universities that had a system of faculties whose teaching was centralized around a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. There was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. HP Pavilion dv6-6156ea Battery

There were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model but having a centralized organization.[38]

Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages: natural philosophy, logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy (and astrology), law, grammar and rhetoric. HP Pavilion G6-1004SA BatteryAristotle was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine also depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be underestimated.[39] Once humanist professors joined the university faculty, they began to transform the study of grammar and rhetoric through the studia humanitatis. HP Pavilion G6-1007SA BatteryHumanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, and to live honorable lives.[40] Other scholars within the university were affected by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to ancient texts, as well as the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts. HP Pavilion G6-1058SA Battery

[41] Professors of medicine such as Niccolò Leoniceno, Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective as well as translated important ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. HP Pavilion G6-1061SA BatteryFor instance, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist fashion before producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation as a jurist. HP Pavilion G6-1207SA BatteryPhilipp Melanchthon cited the works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities.[42] Galileo Galilei, who taught at the Universities of Pisa and Padua, and Martin Luther, who taught at the University of Wittenberg (as did Melanchthon), also had humanist training. HP Pavilion G6-1224SA BatteryThe task of the humanists was to slowly permeate the university; to increase the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic ideal of science and scholarship.[43]

Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, HP Pavilion G6-1236SA Batteryand the ideas of those texts into society generally, their influence was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and lead to a more creative university climate (as the notable list of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human, HP Pavilion G6-1255SA Batteryhas a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known as the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not simply the translation and propagation of ancient texts, but also their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the use of Galen, HP Pavilion G6-1257SA Batterybut he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further research.[44] The propagation of these texts, especially within the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of the use of the vernacular, which allowed for the printing of relatively large texts at reasonable prices.[45] HP Pavilion G7-1000SA BatteryExamining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within the confines of the university, HP Pavilion G7-1004SA Batterythe connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the scientific revolution. Historians such as Richard Westfall have argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists.[46] HP Pavilion dv5-1015ea BatteryThis resistance to changes in science may have been a significant factor in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.[47] HP Pavilion dv5-1012ea BatteryOther historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their education should also be the place that inhibits their research and the advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the European scientists between 1450-1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were university trained, HP Pavilion dv5-1010ea Batteryof which approximately 45% held university posts.[48] It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. There was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, HP Pavilion dv5-1008ea Batterywhich was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. However, university professors still utilized some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction. HP Pavilion dv5-1007ca Battery [49] Another example was the short-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well as demonstrated an openness to change. HP Pavilion dv5-1015ea Battery

There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities.[50] Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported the scientific changes through providing a stable environment for instruction and material resources.[51] HP Pavilion dv5-1034ca Battery

Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, HP Pavilion dv5-1044ca Batterybut also for the training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. HP Pavilion G6-1202SA BatteryInstead of entering higher education to become a “general scholar” immersed in becoming proficient in the entire curriculum, there emerged a type of scholar that put science first and viewed it as a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge. HP Pavilion G6-1255SA Battery

[52]The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, HP Pavilion G6-1259SA Batteryor established by local governments to provide a knowledge hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities.[53] Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and authority for the research and conclusions, they could not compete with the resources available through private benefactors.[54] HP Pavilion G6-1351EA Battery

By the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. HP Pavilion G6-1359EA BatteryThe hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for the most part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state.

Main articles: HP Pavilion G6-1365EA Battery

History of European research universities and List of modern universities in Europe (1801–1945)By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals and by the 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, HP Pavilion G6-1381EA Batterywas conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher’s liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of freedom, seminars, and laboratories in universities.[citation needed] The French university model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the university. HP Pavilion G6-1391EA Battery

Until the 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased in the 19th century, and by the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. HP Pavilion G6-1369EA BatteryIn Britain, the move from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering, a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran, with the formation of the University of Strathclyde.[55] HP Pavilion G6-1159SA Battery

The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe.

In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills; HP Pavilion G6-1251SA Batterythe promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship."[56] HP Pavilion G6-1253SA Battery

A national university is generally a university created or run by a national state but at the same time represent a state autonomic institutions which functions as a completely independent body inside of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural or political aspirations, HP Pavilion G6-1257SA Batteryfor instance the National University of Ireland in the early days of Irish independence collected a large amount of information on the Irish language and Irish culture. Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for a more equal and laic higher education system. HP Pavilion G6-1301SA Battery

Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaty between states are intergovernmental. Such as Academy of European Law offering training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, HP Pavilion G6-1303SA BatteryEuclid University) is chartered as a university and umbrella organization dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries and United Nations University efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are the concern of the United Nations, its Peoples and Member States. The European University Institute, HP Pavilion G6-1309EA Battery

a post-graduate university specialised in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organisation, set up by the member states of the European Union.

Although each institution is organized differently, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; HP Pavilion G6-1347EA Batteryat least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. HP Pavilion G6-2014SA Battery

They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, HP Pavilion G6-2022SA Batteryresearch and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have a broader independence from state policies. However, they may have less independence from business corporations depending on the source of their finances.

The funding and organization of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. HP Pavilion G72-110SA Battery In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.[57] HP Pavilion G72-130SA Battery

The definition of a university varies widely even within some countries. For example, there is no nationally standardized definition of the term in the United States although the term has traditionally been used to designate research institutions and was once reserved for research doctorate-granting institutions. HP Pavilion G72-A10SA Battery[58] Some states, such as Massachusetts, will only grant a school "university status" if it grants at least two doctoral degrees.[59] In the United Kingdom, the Privy Council is responsible for approving the use of the word "university" in the title of an institution, under the terms of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992.[60] In India, HP Pavilion G72-102SA Batterya new tag deemed universities was created a few years ago, by the cabinet minister Arjun Singh during his tenure as the Minister for Human Resource Development. Through this provision many universities sprung up in India, which are commercial in nature and have been established just to exploit the demand of higher education.[61] HP Pavilion G72-105SA Battery

Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "When I was at university…" (in the United States and Ireland, college is often used instead: "When I was in college…"; see the college article for further discussion). In Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, HP Pavilion G72-A20SA Batterythe Netherlands and the German-speaking countries university is often contracted to uni.[citation needed] In New Zealand and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has become uncommon in New Zealand in recent years), which was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century. HP Pavilion G72-A30SA Battery

 

This 5200mAh/7800mAh/10400mAh  Sony vaio VPCF13E8E/H rechargeable battery is a replacement for the original Sony vaio VPCF13E8E/H laptop computerbatteries.Our Sony vaio VPCF13E8E/H battery, made with the finest cells, are 100% compatible with the Manufacturer Part and will even meet or exceed OEM requirements. The new vaioVPCF13E8E/H battery adopts Li-ion technology, which ensures maximum battery life and maximum battery performance. Furthermore, all vaioVPCF13E8E/H batteries for Sony notebook have the built-in auto-rehabilitation function, which can fully charge and discharge the battery to correct the error message.

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A teacher or schoolteacher is a person who provides education for pupils (children) and students (adults). The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, Sony VGN-SR39VN/S Batterya person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain specified professional qualifications or credentials from a university or college. These professional qualifications may include the study of pedagogy, the science of teaching. Teachers, like other professionals, may have to continue their education after they qualify, a process known as continuing professiondevelopment.SonyVPCF13M1E/BBatteryTeachers may use a lesson plan to facilitate student learning, providing a course of study which is called the curriculum.

A teacher's role may vary among cultures. Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, Sony VPCF11C4E/B Battery

civics, community roles, or life skills.A teacher who facilitates education for an individual may also be described as a personal tutor, or, largely historically, a governess.In some countries, formal education can take place through home schooling. Informal learning may be assisted by a teacher occupying a transient or ongoing role, Sony VPCF13Z8E Batterysuch as a family member, or by anyone with knowledge or skills in the wider community setting.Religious and spiritual teachers, such as gurus, mullahs, rabbis, pastors/youth pastors and lamas, may teach religious texts such as the Quran, Torah or Bible.

This section needs additional citations for verification. Sony VPCF13Z8E/BI BatteryPlease help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)

Teaching may be carried out informally, within the family which is called home schooling (see Homeschooling) or the wider community. Sony VPCF12S1E/B BatteryFormal teaching may be carried out by paid professionals. Such professionals enjoy a status in some societies on a par with physicians, lawyers, engineers, and accountants (Chartered or CPA).

A teacher's professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. Outside of the classroom teachers may accompany students on field trips, Sony VPCF12Z1E/BI Batterysupervise study halls, help with the organization of school functions, and serve as supervisors for extracurricular activities. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline.

Around the world teachers are often required to obtain specialized education, knowledge, codes of ethics and internal monitoring. Sony VPCF13M1E/H Battery

There are a variety of bodies designed to instill, preserve and update the knowledge and professional standing of teachers. Around the world many governments operate teacher's colleges, which are generally established to serve and protect the public interest through certifying, governing and enforcing the standards of practice for the teaching profession. Sony VPCF13V5002B BatteryThe functions of the teacher's colleges may include setting out clear standards of practice, providing for the ongoing education of teachers, investigating complaints involving members, conducting hearings into allegations of professional misconduct and taking appropriate disciplinary action and accrediting teacher education programs. Sony VPCF21Z1E/BI BatteryIn many situations teachers in publicly funded schools must be members in good standing with the college, and private schools may also require their teachers to be college peoples. In other areas these roles may belong to the State Board of Education, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sony VPCF24Q1E Battery the State Education Agency or other governmental bodies.In still other areas Teaching Unions may be responsible for some or all of these duties.In education, teachers facilitate student learning, often in a school or academy or perhaps in another environment such as outdoors. A teacher who teaches on an individual basis may be described as a tutor. Sony VPCF23QIE BatteryThe objective is typically accomplished through either an informal or formal approach to learning, including a course of study and lesson plan that teaches skills, knowledge and/or thinking skills. Different ways to teach are often referred to as pedagogy. When deciding what teaching method to use teachers consider students' background knowledge, environment, Sony VPCY21S1E Batteryand their learning goals as well as standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. Many times, teachers assist in learning outside of the classroom by accompanying students on field trips. The increasing use of technology, specifically the rise of the internet over the past decade, has begun to shape the way teachers approach their roles in the classroom. Sony VPCYA17GH/R BatteryThe objective is typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill. A teacher may follow standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. The teacher may interact with students of different ages, from infants to adults, students with different abilities and students with learning disabilities. Sony VPCCW2Z1E/B Battery

Teaching using pedagogy also involve assessing the educational levels of the students on particular skills. Understanding the pedagogy of the students in a classroom involves using differentiated instruction as well as supervision to meet the needs of all students in the classroom. Pedagogy can be thought of in two manners. Sony VPCY11S1E BatteryFirst, teaching itself can be taught in many different ways, hence, using a pedagogy of teaching styles. Second, the pedagogy of the learners comes into play when a teacher assesses the pedagogic diversity of his/her students and differentiates for the individual students accordingly. Sony VPCY11S1E/S BatteryPerhaps the most significant difference between primary school and secondary school teaching is the relationship between teachers and children. In primary schools each class has a teacher who stays with them for most of the week and will teach them the whole curriculum. In secondary schools they will be taught by different subject specialists each session during the week andSony VPCY11AGJ Batterymay have 10 or more different teachers. The relationship between children and their teachers tends to be closer in the primary school where they act as form tutor, specialist teacher and surrogate parent during the course of the day.

This is true throughout most of the United States as well. However, alternative approaches for primary education do exist. One of these, Sony VPCY11AHJ Batterysometimes referred to as a "platoon" system, involves placing a group of students together in one class that moves from one specialist to another for every subject. The advantage here is that students learn from teachers who specialize in one subject and who tend to be more knowledgeable in that one area than a teacher who teaches many subjects. Sony VPCY11AVJ BatteryStudents still derive a strong sense of security by staying with the same group of peers for all classes.

Co-teaching has also become a new trend amongst educational institutions. Co-teaching is defined as two or more teachers working harmoniously to fulfill the needs of every student in the classroom. Sony VPCY11M1E BatteryCo-teaching focuses the student on learning by providing a social networking support that allows them to reach their full cognitive potential. Co-teachers work in sync with one another to create a climate of learning.

Throughout the history of education the most common form of school discipline was corporal punishment. Sony VPCY11S1E BatteryWhile a child was in school, a teacher was expected to act as a substitute parent, with all the normal forms of parental discipline open to them.

In past times, corporal punishment (spanking or paddling or caning or strapping or birching the student in order to cause physical pain) was one of the most common forms of school discipline throughout much of the world. Sony VPCY11V9E BatteryMost Western countries, and some others, have now banned it, but it remains lawful in the United States following a US Supreme Court decision in 1977 which held that paddling did not violate the US Constitution.[1]

30 US states have banned corporal punishment, the others (mostly in the South) have not. Sony VPCY11V9E/S BatteryIt is still used to a significant (though declining) degree in some public schools in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. Private schools in these and most other states may also use it. Corporal punishment in American schools is administered to the seat of the student's trousers or skirt with a specially made wooden paddle. Sony VPCY219FJ/S Battery This often used to take place in the classroom or hallway, but nowadays the punishment is usually given privately in the principal's office.Official corporal punishment, often by caning, remains commonplace in schools in some Asian, African and Caribbean countries. For details of individual countries see School corporal punishment.

Currently detention is one of the most common punishments in schools in the United States, Sony VPCY21AFJ Batterythe UK, Ireland, Singapore and other countries. It requires the pupil to remain in school at a given time in the school day (such as lunch, recess or after school); or even to attend school on a non-school day, e.g. "Saturday detention" held at some US schools. During detention, students normally have to sit in a classroom and do work, write lines or a punishment essay, or sit quietly. Sony VPCY21AGJ Battery

A modern example of school discipline in North America and Western Europe relies upon the idea of an assertive teacher who is prepared to impose their will upon a class. Positive reinforcement is balanced with immediate and fair punishment for misbehavior and firm, clear boundaries define what is appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Sony VPCY21AHJ Battery

Teachers are expected to respect their students; sarcasm and attempts to humiliate pupils are seen as falling outside of what constitutes reasonable discipline.[verification needed]

Whilst this is the consensus viewpoint amongst the majority of academics, some teachers and parents advocate a more assertive and confrontational style of discipline. Sony VPCY21AVJ Battery[citation needed] Such individuals claim that many problems with modern schooling stem from the weakness in school discipline and if teachers exercised firm control over the classroom they would be able to teach more efficiently. This viewpoint is supported by the educational attainment of countries—Sony VPCY21S1E/L Batteryin East Asia for instance—that combine strict discipline with high standards of education.[citation needed]

It's not clear, however that this stereotypical view reflects the reality of East Asian classrooms or that the educational goals in these countries are commensurable with those in Western countries. In Japan, for example, Sony VPCY21S1E/P Batteryalthough average attainment on standardized tests may exceed those in Western countries, classroom discipline and behavior is highly problematic. Although, officially, schools have extremely rigid codes of behavior, in practice many teachers find the students unmanageable and do not enforce discipline at all.

Where school class sizes are typically 40 to 50 students, Sony VPCY21S1E/SI Batterymaintaining order in the classroom can divert the teacher from instruction, leaving little opportunity for concentration and focus on what is being taught. In response, teachers may concentrate their attention on motivated students, ignoring attention-seeking and disruptive students. The result of this is that motivated students, Sony PCG-31211T Batteryfacing demanding university entrance examinations, receive disproportionate resources. Given the emphasis on attainment of university places, administrators and governors may regard this policy as appropriate.

Sudbury model democratic schools claim that popularly based authority can maintain order more effectively than dictatorial authority for governments and schools alike. Sony PCG-31311T Battery

They also claim that in these schools the preservation of public order is easier and more efficient than anywhere else. Primarily because rules and regulations are made by the community as a whole, thence the school atmosphere is one of persuasion and negotiation, rather than confrontation since there is no one to confront. Sony PCG-51111T BatterySudbury model democratic schools' proponents argue that a school that has good, clear laws, fairly and democratically passed by the entire school community, and a good judicial system for enforcing these laws, is a school in which community discipline prevails, and in which an increasingly sophisticated concept of law and order develops, Sony PCG-81111T Battery against other schools today, where rules are arbitrary, authority is absolute, punishment is capricious, and due process of law is unknown.[2][3]

Since teachers can affect how students perceive the course materials, it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can affect a positive learning experience towards the course materials. Sony PCG-81311T BatteryOn teacher/course evaluations, it was found that teachers who have a positive disposition towards the course content tend to transfer their passion to receptive students.[4] These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the course materials on a daily basis.[5] One of the difficulties in this approach is that Sony VPCF138FC Batteryteachers may have repeatedly covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject which in turn bores the students as well. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didn’t show much enthusiasm for the course materials.[citation needed]

Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, Sony VPCF219FC Batteryinterested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students’ intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom.[6] Controlled, experimental studies exploring intrinsic motivation of college students has shown that nonverbal expressions of enthusiasm, such as demonstrative gesturing, Sony VPCS135EC Batterydramatic movements which are varied, and emotional facial expressions, result in college students reporting higher levels of intrinsic motivation to learn.[citation needed] Students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. Sony VPCS136EC Battery

There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation. Teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere full of energy and enthusiasm which feed student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter.[citation needed] Sony VPCS138EC BatteryEnthusiastic teachers may also lead to students becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teacher’s enthusiasm may contribute to the student’s expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning. Also, enthusiasm may act as a “motivational embellishment”; Sony VPCS139GC Batteryincreasing a student’s interest by the variety, novelty, and surprise of the enthusiastic teacher’s presentation of the material. Finally, the concept of emotional contagion, may also apply. Students may become more intrinsically motivated by catching onto the enthusiasm and energy of the teacher.[citation needed]

Research shows that student motivation andSony VPCYA15EC Batteryattitudes towards school are closely linked to student-teacher relationships. Enthusiastic teachers are particularly good at creating beneficial relations with their students. Their ability to create effective learning environments that foster student achievement depends on the kind of relationship they build with their students.[7][8][9][10] Sony VPCYA16EC BatteryUseful teacher-to-student interactions are crucial in linking academic success with personal achievement.[11] Here, personal success is a student's internal goal of improving himself, whereas academic success includes the goals he receives from his superior. A teacher must guide his student in aligning his personal goals with his academic goals. Sony VPCYA25EC Battery Students who receive this positive influence show stronger self-confidence and greater personal and academic success than those without these teacher interactions.[10][12][13]

Students are likely to build stronger relations with teachers who are friendly and supportive and will show more interest in courses taught by these teachers. Sony VPCYA26EC BatteryTeachers that spend more time interacting and working directly with students are perceived as supportive and effective teachers. Effective teachers have been shown to invite student participation and decision making, allow humor into their classroom, and demonstrate a willingness to play.[8]

The way a teacher promotes the course they are teaching, Sony VPCYB15JC Batterythe more the student will get out of the subject matter. The three most important aspects of teacher enthusiasm are enthusiasm about teaching, enthusiasm about the students, and enthusiasm about the subject matter. A teacher must enjoy teaching. If they do not enjoy what they are doing, the students will be able to tell. Sony VGN-SR39XN/S BatteryThey also must enjoy being around their students. A teacher who cares for their students is going to help that individual succeed in their life in the future. The teacher also needs to be enthusiastic about the subject matter they are teaching. For example, a teacher talking about chemsitry needs to enjoy the art of chemistry and show that to their students. Sony VGN-SR29VN/S Battery

A spark in the teacher may create a spark of excitement in the student as well. A enthusiastic teacher has the ability to be very influential in the young students life.

Misconduct by teachers, especially sexual misconduct, has been getting increased scrutiny from the media and the courts.[14] Sony VGN-SR29XN/S BatteryA study by the American Association of University Women reported that 9.6% of students in the United States claim to have received unwanted sexual attention from an adult associated with education; be they a volunteer, bus driver, teacher, administrator or other adult; sometime during their educational career.[15] Sony VGN-SR31M/S BatteryA study in England showed a 0.3% prevalence of sexual abuse by any professional, a group that included priests, religious leaders, and case workers as well as teachers.[16] It is important to note, however, that the British study referenced above is the only one of its kind and consisted of "a random … probability sample of 2,869 young people between the ages of 18 and 24 in a computer-assisted study"Sony VGN-SR19VN Batteryand that the questions referred to "sexual abuse with a professional," not necessarily a teacher. It is therefore logical to conclude that information on the percentage of abuses by teachers in the United Kingdom is not explicitly available and therefore not necessarily reliable. The AAUW study, however, Sony VGN-SR19XN Batteryposed questions about fourteen types of sexual harassment and various degrees of frequency and included only abuses by teachers. "The sample was drawn from a list of 80,000 schools to create a stratified two-stage sample design of 2,065 8th to 11th grade students"Its reliability was gauged at 95% with a 4% margin of error.

In the United States especially, Sony VGN-SR21M/S Batteryseveral high-profile cases such as Debra LaFave, Pamela Rogers, and Mary Kay Latourneau have caused increased scrutiny on teacher misconduct.

Chris Keates, the general secretary of National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers, said that teachers who have sex with pupils over the age of consent should not be placed on the sex offenders register Sony VGN-SR3CW/B Batteryand that prosecution for statutory rape "is a real anomaly in the law that we are concerned about." This has led to outrage from child protection and parental rights groups.[17]

There are many similarities and differences among teachers around the world. In almost all countries teachers are educated in a university or college. Governments may require certification by a recognized body before they can teach in a school. Sony VGN-SR3S1 Battery In many countries, elementary school education certificate is earned after completion of high school. The high school student follows an education specialty track, obtain the prerequisite "student-teaching" time, and receive a special diploma to begin teaching after graduation.

International schools generally follow an English-speaking, Sony VGN-SR41M/P BatteryWestern curriculum and are aimed at expatriate communities.[18]

Teaching in Canada requires a post-secondary degree Bachelor's Degree. In most provinces a second Bachelor's Degree such as a Bachelor of Education is required to become a qualified teacher. Salary ranges from $40,000/year to $90,000/yr. Sony VGN-SR41M/S BatteryTeachers have the option to teach for a public school which is funded by the provincial government or teaching in a private school which is funded by the private sector, businesses and sponsors.

Salaries for Nursery, Primary and Secondary School teachers ranged from £20,133 to £41,004 in September 2007, Sony VGN-SR41M/W Batteryalthough some salaries can go much higher depending on experience and extra responsibilities.[19] Preschool teachers may earn £20,980 annually.[citation needed] Teachers in state schools must have at least a bachelor's degree, complete an approved teacher education program, and be licensed. Sony VGN-SR49VN/H Battery

Many counties offer alternative licensing programs to attract people into teaching, especially for hard-to-fill positions. Excellent job opportunities are expected as retirements, especially among secondary school teachers, outweigh slowing enrollment growth; opportunities will vary by geographic area and subject taught.[citation needed] Sony VGN-SR51B/P Battery

Salaries for primary teachers in the Republic of Ireland depend mainly on seniority (i.e. holding the position of principal, deputy principal or assistant principal), experience and qualifications. Extra pay is also given for teaching through the Irish language, in a Gaeltacht area or on an island. The basic pay for a starting teacher is €30,904 p.a., Sony VGN-SR51B/S Batteryrising incrementally to €59,359 for a teacher with 25 years' service. A principal of a large school with many years' experience and several qualifications (M.A., H.Dip., etc.) could earn over €90,000.[20]

In Scotland, anyone wishing to teach must be registered with the General Teaching Council for Scotland (GTCS). Sony VGN-SR51B BatteryTeaching in Scotland is an all graduate profession and the normal route for graduates wishing to teach is to complete a programme of Initial Teacher Education (ITE) at one of the seven Scottish Universities who offer these courses. Once successfully completed, "Provisional Registration" is given by the GTCS which is raised to "Full Registration" Sony VGN-SR51MF/W Batterystatus after a year if there is sufficient evidence to show that the "Standard for Full Registration" has been met.[21]

For the salary year beginning April 2008, unpromoted teachers in Scotland earned from £20,427 for a Probationer, up to £32,583 after 6 years teaching, but could then go on to earn up to £39,942 as they complete the modules to earn Chartered Teacher StatusSony VGN-SR51MF Battery(requiring at least 6 years at up to two modules per year.) Promotion to Principal Teacher positions attracts a salary of between £34,566 and £44,616; Deputy Head, and Head teachers earn from £40,290 to £78,642.[22] Teachers in Scotland can be registered members of trade unions such as ATL. Sony VGN-SR45H/B Battery

In the United States, each state determines the requirements for getting a license to teach in public schools. Teaching certification generally lasts three years, but teachers can receive certificates that last as long as ten years.[23] Public school teachers are required to have a bachelor's degree and the majority must be certified by the state in which they teach. Sony VGN-SR45H/N BatteryMany charter schools do not require that their teachers be certified, provided they meet the standards to be highly qualified as set by No Child Left Behind. Additionally, the requirements for substitute/temporary teachers are generally not as rigorous as those for full-time professionals. Sony VGN-SR45H/P BatteryThe Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that there are 1.4 million elementary school teachers,[24] 674,000 middle school teachers,[25] and 1 million secondary school teachers employed in the U.S.[26]

In the past, teachers have been paid relatively low salaries. However, average teacher salaries have improved rapidly in recent years. HP Pavilion dv6-1013ea BatteryUS teachers are generally paid on graduated scales, with income depending on experience. Teachers with more experience and higher education earn more than those with a standard bachelor’s degree and certificate. Salaries vary greatly depending on state, relative cost of living, and grade taught. HP Pavilion dv6-1010ea BatterySalaries also vary within states where wealthy suburban school districts generally have higher salary schedules than other districts. The median salary for all primary and secondary teachers was $46,000 in 2004, with the average entry salary for a teacher with a bachelor's degree being an estimated $32,000. HP Pavilion dv6-1005ea BatteryMedian salaries for preschool teachers, however, were less than half the national median for secondary teachers, clock in at an estimated $21,000 in 2004.[27] For high school teachers, median salaries in 2007 ranged from $35,000 in South Dakota to $71,000 in New York, HP Pavilion dv6-1025ef Battery

with a national median of $52,000.[28] Some contracts may include long-term disability insurance, life insurance, emergency/personal leave and investment options.[29] The American Federation of Teachers' teacher salary survey for the 2006-07 school year found that the average teacher salary was $51,009.[30] HP Pavilion dv6-1108ca BatteryIn a salary survey report for K-12 teachers, elementary school teachers had the lowest median salary earning $39,259. High school teachers had the highest median salary earning $41,855.[31] Many teachers take advantage of the opportunity to increase their income by supervising after-school programs and other extracurricular activities.   HP Pavilion dv6-2010sa BatteryIn addition to monetary compensation, public school teachers may also enjoy greater benefits (like health insurance) compared to other occupations. Merit pay systems are on the rise for teachers, paying teachers extra money based on excellent classroom evaluations, high test scores and for high success at their overall school. Also, with the advent of the internet,   HP Pavilion dv6t Batterymany teachers are now selling their lesson plans to other teachers through the web in order to earn supplemental income, most notably on TeachersPayTeachers.com.[32]

Education in Wales differs in certain respects from education elsewhere in the United Kingdom. For example,   HP Pavilion dv6t-1000 Batterya significant number of students all over Wales are educated either wholly or largely through the medium of Welsh: in 2008/09, 22 per cent of classes in maintained primary schools used Welsh as the sole or main medium of instruction. Welsh medium education is available to all age groups through nurseries,   HP Pavilion dv6t-1100 Battery schools, colleges and universities and in adult education; lessons in the language itself are compulsory for all pupils until the age of 16.

Teachers in Wales can be registered members of trade unions such as ATL, NUT or NASUWT and reports in recent years suggest that the average age of teachers in Wales is falling with teachers being younger than in previous years.[33] HP Pavilion dv6z Battery

A growing cause of concern are that attacks on teachers in Welsh schools which reached an all-time high between 2005 and 2010.[34]

Teach First is an independent educational charity United Kingdom, Reg. No. 1098294, founded in 2002.   HP Pavilion dv6z-1000 Battery

Its mission is to address educational disadvantage by transforming exceptional graduates into effective, inspirational teachers and leaders in all fields. Teach First targets graduates who would not normally consider a career in teaching and places them in what it considers challenging schools across England – where:   HP Pavilion dv6-1148ca Battery

More than 50% of their pupils are from deprived backgrounds according to the respected IDACI index of childhood deprivation, thereby more accurately prioritising those schools with higher levels of deprivationSchools with the lowest levels of attainment in regards to the 5+ A*-C measure – i.e. schools whose results fall in the lowest third of the national distribution. HP Pavilion dv6-1210SA BatterySince launching in 2002, Teach First has placed increasing numbers of participants in schools each year with 163 joining in 2003, up to 770 in 2011 – and has an ambassador community (alumni) of over 1,575.Teach First is now rated 4th in the Times Top 100 Graduate Recruiters,   HP Pavilion dv6-1215SA Batterywith the number of applicants rising from 3,000 in 2009 (with 22% of applicants accepted to the programme) to around 5,000 in 2010 (with 11% accepted).

In 2012, Teach First climbed to 4th place on the league of Times Top 100 Graduate Employers.

In spring 2002, a pro bono study for London First and Business in the Community considered how businesses could work together to improve secondary education in London.   HP Pavilion dv6-1120EA BatteryIt came up with the idea of adapting the US Teach For America scheme as a means of attracting more teachers to teach in the most challenging schools – which typically have a greater difficulty recruiting and retaining teaching staff. By setting up a scheme which provided graduates with access to some of the world's top businesses,   HP Pavilion dv6-1120SA Battery

 and focused on developing leadership skills alongside teaching, the study proposed that the scheme would attract graduates to commit to teaching for two years and gain marketable skills for leading in whatever field they chose afterwards. As one of the lead consultants on the study, HP Pavilion dv6-1140EA BatteryBrett Wigdortz took a 6 month sabbatical from McKinsey to write the proposed organisation's business plan and try to get it started. During this time, he was supported by Rona Kiley, head of business and education at London First, and George Iacobescu, chief executive of Canary Wharf, who provided the first £25,000 in funding. In June 2002, Schools Minister Stephen Twigg MP threw in his support and Wigdortz left his job at McKinsey to become Chief Executive Officer of Teach First,   HP Pavilion dv6-1210EA Batterywith Kiley and Iacobescu joining as the charity's trustees. The programme was officially launched on 15 July 2002 at Cabot Hall, Canary Wharf.

The first group of participants was taken on in 2002-03, and started their training in the summer of 2003. They numbered 184 graduates mainly from the Russell Group of Universities and went to 46 schools in London.   HP Pavilion dv6-1216SA BatteryIn 2006 the scheme expanded to Greater Manchester; in 2007 to the Midlands; in 2008 to Merseyside to create a North West office; in 2009 a Yorkshire and a Humber office was opened, and the Midlands office was split into East and West regions. In 2012 Teach First expanded to the Kent and Medway region.

Applications for Teach First can be made online.   HP Pavilion dv6-1330SA Battery

Candidates are expected to meet the requirements of the equivalent of a 2:1 degree and 300 UCAS points.

If they are successful in the first application phase, candidates are invited to the Assessment Centre. Here their potential to develop into effective teachers and inspirational leaders is assessed against 8 core competencies: humility,   HP Pavilion dv6-2110EA Batteryrespect and empathy, interaction, knowledge, leadership, planning and organising, problem solving, resilience and self-evaluation.

The Teach First Deferred Entry Scheme works through partnerships between Teach First and Accenture, Barclays Capital, the Civil Service Fast Stream, PricewaterhouseCoopers and Procter and Gamble.   HP Pavilion dv6-2114A BatteryAnyone successful in their application via this route is promised a job with one of these organisations after successfully completing the Teach First programme. In order to apply via this route, one must apply directly to Teach First and one of the participating organisations. If they are offered positions by both then they have the unique opportunity to defer entry to the latter for two years,   HP Pavilion dv6-2112SA Batteryafter participating in Teach First.

Teach First’s Leadership Development Programme is aimed at ensuring participants maximise their impact on pupil achievement in the short term and develop a set of transferable skills that will broaden their impact on educational disadvantage in the future.   HP Pavilion dv5-1008ca Battery

A Teach First participant is expected to work at his or her placement school for two years. On completion of the Leadership Development Programme, participants graduate to become Teach First Ambassadors, and are encouraged to continue to address educational disadvantage through teaching or leadership positions in other fields. Sony VPCF117FJ BatterySuccessful completion and the award of Ambassador status requires the participant to gain Qualified Teacher Status and a postgraduate / professional graduate certificate in education (PGCE award) and complete their Newly Qualified Teacher year, as well as completing a Master's accreditted module of three units: Leading Learning, Sony VPCF117HG/BI BatteryLeading People and Leading Organisations. Ambassadors also have the option to complete a further 90 credits delivered by Teach First's partner universities (the Institute of Education (London), University of Manchester and University of Warwick), focused on Urban Learning, Change Management and practice based projects and divided into 2 or 3 modules, Sony VPCF118FJ Batteryto gain a Master's qualification in educational leadership.

Before entering the classroom, participants attend the Summer Institute, the residential component of the initial teacher training. This lasts six weeks, with participants spending half the time studying and gaining teaching practice in the region they will be teaching in, Sony VPCF119FC Batteryand half the time studying alongside the whole national cohort on campus at University of Warwick.

In the first year, participants undertake a 70% teaching commitment in school, during which they are supported by Teach First, their partner universities and school mentors in training to achieve Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) at the end of the year, Sony VPCF119FJ Batteryand a postgraduate / professional graduate certificate in education (PGCE award).

Professional and subject tutors from regional universities work alongside mentors in schools to ensure participants meet the qualification standards. Teach First Leadership Development Officers, all of whom are qualified teachers, provide an additional layer of support. Sony VPCF11AFJ Battery

While teaching, participants also undertake Master’s accredited supplemental leadership training, which is delivered by Teach First and university assessed. This equips participants with qualifications in ‘Leading Learning’, ‘Leading People’ and ‘Leading Organisations’.Over the school summer holidays, Sony VPCF11AGJ Batterybetween the first and second years, the participants are assisted in gaining internships with a variety of organisations in the public, private and non-profit sectors. With the participants having qualified as teachers, participants move to a full teaching timetable but continue to be supported by Teach First and its partner organisations to set ambitious goals for the achievement of the pupils in their classesSony VPCF11AHJ Batteryand enhance their leadership skills. As a Newly Qualified Teacher, participants receive payment through the main pay scale, it is not uncommon for participants to begin above the base point (M1) or to receive management points for taking on additional responsibility in their school. Throughout the programme, Sony VPCF11JFX/B Batteryparticipants aim to develop their leadership skills within their school context. This is supported by Teach First leadership training delivered in partnership with Imperial College Business School, Manchester Business School and many other corporate partners.

Upon successful completion of the Leadership Development Programme our participants become a part of the ambassador network. Sony VPCF11M1E Battery

They are united by a unique insight into the challenges schools face, experience of what works, and the expertise and commitment to continue addressing the Teach First vision. 54% of ambassadors are in teaching positions throughout the UK where they continue to raise the access to opportunity, Sony VPCF11M1E/H Battery aspirations and achievement of pupils. At the same time, nearly half of the network is able to influence change in business, the third sector and government through alternative careers.To help them achieve this change, ambassadors are supported to connect with one another and the wider Teach First community so that they: Sony VPCF11S1E Battery

Through both these areas ambassadors are continuing to achieve change at pupil, school and system level.

The Teach First scheme was based solely in London until September 2006 when it expanded its reach across England by placing students into Greater Manchester schools.

Following the award of an expansion grant from the DCSF in Summer 2008, Sony VPCF11Z1E Batteryand a massive increase in its fundraising targets from other sources, Teach First is now in schools in seven regions – Greater London, East Midlands, West Midlands, the North West, the North East, Yorkshire and the Humber and Kent and Medway. This includes schools in London, Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, Sony VPCF11ZHJ BatteryDerby, Leicester, Birmingham, Solihull, Coventry, Greater Manchester, Merseyside, Newcastle, Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, Doncaster and Wakefield.

In 2010, Teach First placed close to 600 graduates in teaching positions in 242 schools in challenging circumstances across England, Sony VPCF11C4E/B Batterymaking it the 4th largest recruiter of graduates in the UK. It hopes to place over 1,000 graduates by 2013 to reach over 300,000 pupils[citation needed].

In response to requests from social entrepreneurs in several countries across the world who are inspired by the Teach For America and Teach First model and want to replicate it in their respective countries, Sony VPCF11C5E BatteryTeach For America and Teach First collaborated on a project with the pro-bono assistance of a team from McKinsey & Company. Together they sought to understand the experiences of other international organizations, the needs of the entrepreneurs who were seeking assistance, and the enablers of impact in our model. Sony VPCF11D4E BatteryThe results of the study was the creation of Teach For All. Teach For All is a global network of independent social enterprises that are working to expand educational opportunity in their nation by enlisting the most promising future leaders in the effort. Teach For All is currently supporting initiatives in Argentina, Sony VPCF11M1E/H BatteryBrazil (from 2011), Bulgaria (from 2011), China, Israel, Peru, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Australia, Chile, Lebanon, Germany, and India.

"Teach the Controversy" is the name of a Discovery Institute campaign to promote a variant of traditional creationism, intelligent design, while attempting to discredit evolution in United States public high school science courses. Sony VPCF11S1E/B BatteryThe central claim the Discovery Institute makes with 'Teach the Controversy' is that fairness and equal time requires educating students with a 'critical analysis of evolution'[7] where "the full range of scientific views",[8] evolution's "unresolved issues", and the "scientific weaknesses of evolutionary theory"[9] will be presented and evaluated alongside intelligent design concepts like irreducible complexitySony VPCF115FG/B Battery[10] presented as a scientific argument against evolution through oblique references to books by design proponents listed in the bibliography of the Institute-proposed "Critical Analysis of Evolution" lesson plans.[11] The intelligent design movement and the Teach the Controversy campaign are directed and supported largely by the Discovery Institute, Sony VPCF2 Batterya conservative Christian[12][13] think tank based in Seattle, Washington, USA. The overall goal of the movement is to "defeat [the] materialist world view" represented by the theory of evolution and replace it with "a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions."[14] Sony VPCF21Z1E BatteryThe scientific community and science education organizations have replied that there is no scientific controversy regarding the validity of evolution and that the controversy exists solely in terms of religion and politics.[15][16][17] A federal court, along with the majority of scientific organizations, including the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Sony VPCF22J1E Batterysay the Institute has manufactured the controversy they want to teach by promoting a false perception that evolution is "a theory in crisis" due to it being the subject of purported wide controversy and debate within the scientific community.[15][16][18][19] McGill University Professor Brian Alters, an expert in the creation-evolution controversy, Sony VPCF22L1E Battery is quoted in an article published by the NIH as stating that "99.9 percent of scientists accept evolution"[20] whereas intelligent design has been rejected by the overwhelming majority of the scientific community.[21][22] With the December 2005 ruling in Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, wherein Judge John E. Jones III concluded that intelligent design is not science and "cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, Sony VPCF22M1E Batteryand thus religious, antecedents".[23] The Dover ruling also characterized "teaching the controversy" as part of a religious ploy.[24]

The term "teach the controversy" originated with Gerald Graff, a professor of English and education at the University of Illinois at Chicago,[25] as an admonition to teach that established knowledge is not simply given as a settled matter, Sony VPCF22S1E Batterybut that it is created in a crucible of debate and controversy. To the chagrin of Graff, who describes himself as a liberal secularist,[25] the idea was later appropriated by Phillip E. Johnson, Discovery Institute program advisor and father of the ID movement. Sony VPCF22S8E BatteryDiscussing the 1999-2000 Kansas State Board of Education controversy over the teaching of intelligent design in public school classrooms, Johnson wrote "What educators in Kansas and elsewhere should be doing is to 'teach the controversy'." In his book Johnson proposed casting the conflicting points of view and agendas as a scholarly controversy. Sony VPCF23M1E BatteryJohnson's usage differs somewhat from Graff's original concept. While Graff advocated that a comprehensive understanding of what are considered to be "established" concepts must include teaching the debates and conflicts by which they were established, Johnson appropriated the phrase to cast doubt upon the very concept of established knowledge.[26] Sony VPCF23Q1E Battery

 

The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland and is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations. Sony VGN-SR39VN/S BatteryThe constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by all 61 countries of the United Nations by 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office International d'Hygiène Publique and the League of Nations Health Organization. Since its creation, Sony VPCF13M1E/B Battery

WHO has been responsible for playing a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. Its current priorities include communicable diseases, in particular, HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis; the mitigation of the effects of non-communicable diseases; sexual and reproductive health, development, and ageing; nutrition, Sony VPCF11C4E/B Batteryfood security and healthy eating; substance abuse; and drive the development of reporting, publications, and networking. WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, a leading international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey, and World Health Day..Its links with the IAEA and distribution of contraception have both proved controversial, Sony VPCF13Z8E Batteryas have guidelines on healthy eating and the 2009 flu pandemic.

The League of Nations Health Organization was established following the First World War inside the League of Nations framework.[1] Its efforts were hampered by the Second World War, during which UNRRA also played a role in international health initiatives. Sony VPCF13Z8E/BI Battery

During the United Nations Conference on International Organization, references to health had been incorporated into the United Nations Charter.[3]

In February 1946, the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations helped draft the constitution of the new body. Sony VPCF12S1E/B BatteryThe use of the word "world", rather than "international", emphasised the truly global nature of what the organization was seeking to achieve.[2] The constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by all 61 countries by 22 July 1946, which an article in Science described as "an historic day". It thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Sony VPCF12Z1E/BI BatteryIts constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, when it was ratified by the 26th member state.[4] The first meeting World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million (then GBP£1,250,000) for the 1949 year. Dr. Sony VPCF13M1E/H BatteryAndrija Stampar was the Assembly's first president, and Dr. G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO, having served as Executive Secretary during the planning stages.[2] Its first priorities were malaria, tuberculosis, sexually transmitted infections, maternal and child health, Sony VPCF13V5002B Batterynutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of accurate statistics on the spread and morbidity of disease.[2] The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing.[5]

WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex in 1947, Sony VPCF21Z1E/BI Batteryand by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive (using the BCG vaccine) was under way. In 1955, the malaria eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Sony VPCF24Q1E BatteryWHO moved into its headquarters building in 1966. The Expanded Programme on Immunization was started in 1974, as was the control programme into onchocerciasis – an important partnership between the Food and Agriculture Organization, the United Nations Development Programme, Sony VPCF23QIE Batteryand World Bank. In the following year, the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases was also launched. In 1976, the World Health Assembly voted to enact a resolution on Disability Prevention and Rehabilitation, with a focus on community-driven care. The first list of essential medicines was drawn up in 1977, Sony VPCY21S1E Batteryand a year later the ambitious goal of "health for all" was declared. In 1986, WHO started it global programme on the growing problem of HIV/AIDS, followed two years later by additional attention on preventing discrimination against sufferers and UNAIDS was formed in 1996. The Global Polio Eradication Initiative was established in 1988.[6] Sony VPCYA17GH/R BatteryIn 1958, Professor Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake a global initiative to eradicate smallpox, resulting in Resolution WHA11.54.[7] At this point, 2 million people were dying from smallpox every year. In 1967, Sony VPCCW2Z1E/B Battery

the World Health Organization intensified the global smallpox eradication by contributing $2.4 million annually to the effort and adopted a new disease surveillance method.[8][9] The initial problem the WHO team faced was inadequate reporting of smallpox cases. WHO established a network of consultants who assisted countries in setting up surveillance and containment activities. Sony VPCY11S1E BatteryThe WHO also helped contain the last European outbreak in Yugoslavia in 1972.[11] After over two decades of fighting smallpox, the WHO declared in 1980 that the disease had been eradicated – the first disease in history to be eliminated by human effort.[12]

In 1998, WHO's Director General highlighted gains in child survival, Sony VPCY11S1E/S Batteryreduced infant mortality, raised life expectancy and reduced rates of "scourges" such as smallpox and polio on the fiftieth anniversary of WHO's founding. He, did, however, accept that more had to be done to assist maternal health and that progress in this area had been slow.[13] Cholera and malaria have remained problems since WHO's founding, Sony VPCY11AGJ Battery

although in decline for a large part of that period.[14] In the twenty-first century, the Stop TB partnership was created in 2000, along with the UN's formulation of the Millennium Development Goals. The Measles initiative was formed in 2001, and credited with reducing global deaths from the disease by 68% by 2007. Sony VPCY11AHJ BatteryIn 2002, The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria was drawn up to improve the resources available.[6] In 2006, the organization endorsed the world's first official HIV/AIDS Toolkit for Zimbabwe, which formed the basis for a global prevention, treatment and support plan to fight the AIDS pandemic.[15] Sony VPCY11AVJ Battery

To prevent and reduce disease, disability and premature death from chronic noncommunicable diseases, mental disorders, violence and injuries[19] and visual impairment.To reduce morbidity and mortality and improve health during key stages of life, including pregnancy, childbirth, the neonatal period, Sony VPCY11M1E Batterychildhood and adolescence, and improve sexual and reproductive health[20] and promote active and healthy ageing for all individuals.To reduce the health consequences of emergencies, disasters, crises and conflicts, and minimize their social and economic impact

To promote health and development, Sony VPCY11S1E Batteryand prevent or reduce risk factors for health conditions associated with use of tobacco,[21] alcohol, drugs and other psychoactive substances, unhealthy diets and physical inactivity[22] and unsafe sex.To address the underlying social and economic determinants of health through policies and programmes that enhance health equity and integrate pro-poor, genderresponsive, Sony VPCY11V9E Batteryand human rights-based approaches.To promote a healthier environment, intensify primary prevention and influence public policies in all sectors so as to address the root causes of environmental threats to health.To improve nutrition, food safety and food security throughout the life-course and in support of public health and sustainable developmentSony VPCY11V9E/S BatteryTo improve health services through better governance, financing, staffing and management, informed by reliable and accessible evidence and research

To ensure improved access, quality and use of medical products and technologies

To provide leadership, strengthen governance and foster partnership and collaboration with countries, the United Nations system, Sony VPCY219FJ/S Batteryand other stakeholders in order to fulfil the mandate of WHO in advancing the global health agenda

To develop and sustain WHO as a flexible, learning organization, enabling it to carry out its mandate more efficiently and effectively

WHO aims to eradicate polio.[23] In addition, Sony VPCY21AFJ Batterythe WHO has also promoted road safety.[24] Each year, the organization marks World Health Day focusing on a specific health promotion topic, timed to match the anniversary of WHO's founding. Recent themes have been drug resistance (2011) and ageing (2012).[25] As part of the United Nations, the World Health Organization supports work towards the Millennium Development Goals. Sony VPCY21AGJ BatteryOf the eight Millennium Development Goals, three – reducing child mortality by two-thirds, to reduce maternal deaths by three-quarters, and to halt and begin to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS – relate directly to WHO's scope; the other five inter-relate and have an impact on world health.[27]

The organization relies on contributions from renowned scientists and professionals to inform its work, Sony VPCY21AHJ Batterysuch as the WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization,[28] the WHO Expert Committee on Leprosy,[29] and the WHO Study Group on Interprofessional Education & Collaborative Practice.[30] WHO has also worked on global initiatives in surgery, including emergency and essential surgical care,[31] trauma care,[32] and safe surgery.[33] Sony VPCY21AVJ Battery

The WHO Surgical Safety Checklist is in current use worldwide in the effort to improve patient safety.[34]

WHO runs the Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research, targeted at improving health policy and systems.[35] WHO aims to improve access to health research and literature in developing countries such as through the HINARI network. Sony VPCY21S1E/L Battery

The organization has published tools for monitoring the capacity of national health systems[37] and health workforces.[38] The World Health Organization works to provide the needed health and well-being evidence through a variety of data collection platforms, including the World Health Survey covering almost 400,000 respondents from 70 countries, Sony VPCY21S1E/P Batteryand the Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health (SAGE) covering over 50,000 persons over 50 years old in 23 countries.[40] The WHO Assessment Instrument for Mental Health Systems (WHO-AIMS), the WHO Quality of Life Instrument (WHOQOL), and the Service Availability and Readiness Assessment (SARA) provide guidance for data collection.[41] Collaborative efforts between WHO and other agencies, Sony VPCY21S1E/SI Batterysuch as through the Health Metrics Network, also aim to provide sufficient high-quality information to assist governmental decision making.[42] WHO promotes the development of capacities in member states to use and produce research that addresses their national needs, including through the Evidence-Informed Policy Network (EVIPNet). Sony PCG-31211T Battery

The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO/AMRO) became the first region to develop and pass a policy on research for health approved in September 2009.[44]

The organization develops and promotes the use of evidence-based tools, norms and standards to support member states to inform health policy options. Sony PCG-31311T Battery

It oversees the implementation of the International Health Regulations, and publishes a series of medical classifications; of these, three are overreaching "reference classifications": the International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD), the International Classification of Functioning, Sony PCG-51111T Battery

Disability and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of Health Interventions (ICHI).[45] Other international policy frameworks produced by WHO include the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes (adopted in 1981),[46] Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (adopted in 2003) Sony PCG-81111T Batteryand the Global Code of Practice on the International Recruitment of Health Personnel (adopted in 2010).[48] The WHO regularly publishes a World Health Report, its leading publication, including an expert assessment of a specific global health topic.[49] Other publications of WHO include the Bulletin of the World Health Organization, Sony PCG-81311T Battery the Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal (overseen by EMRO),[51] the Human Resources for Health (published in collaboration with BioMed Central),[52] and the Pan American Journal of Public Health (overseen by PAHO/AMRO).[53]

As of 2012, the WHO has 194 member states, including the Cook Islands and Niue.[55] As of 2009, it also had two associate members, Sony VPCF138FC BatteryPuerto Rico and Tokelau.[56] Non-members of the WHO include Liechtenstein and other states with limited diplomatic recognition.[55] Several other entities have been granted observer status. Palestine is an observer as a "national liberation movement" recognised by the League of Arab States under United Nations Resolution 3118. Sony VPCF219FC Battery

The Holy See also attends as an observer, as does the Order of Malta.[57] In 2010, the Republic of China was invited under the name of "Chinese Taipei".[58]

WHO Member States appoint delegations to the World Health Assembly, WHO's supreme decision-making body. Sony VPCS135EC Battery

All UN Member States are eligible for WHO membership, and, according to the WHO web site, "other countries may be admitted as members when their application has been approved by a simple majority vote of the World Health Assembly."[55]

In addition, Sony VPCS136EC Batterythe UN observer organizations International Committee of the Red Cross and International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies have entered into "official relations" with WHO and are invited as observers. In the World Health Assembly they are seated along the other NGOs.[57]

The World Health Assembly is the legislative and supreme body of WHO. Sony VPCS138EC Battery

Based in Geneva, it typically meets yearly in May. It appoints the Director-General every five years, and votes on matters of policy and finance of WHO, including the proposed budget. It also reviews reports of the Executive Board and decides whether there are areas of work requiring further examination. Sony VPCS139GC Battery

The Assembly elects 34 members, technically qualified in the field of health, to the Executive Board for three-year terms. The main functions of the Board are to carry out the decisions and policies of the Assembly, to advise it and to facilitate its work.[59]

The regional divisions of WHO were created between 1949 and 1952, Sony VPCYA15EC Battery

and are based on article 44 of WHO's constitution, which allowed the WHA to "establish a [single] regional organization to meet the special needs of [each defined] area". Many decisions are made at regional level, including importance discussions over WHO's budget, and in deciding the members of the next assembly, which are designated by the regions.[60] Sony VPCYA16EC BatteryEach region has a Regional Committee, which generally meets once a year, normally in the autumn. Representatives attend from each member or associative member in each region, including those states that are not fully recognised. Sony VPCYA25EC BatteryEach region also has a regional office.[60] Each Regional Office is headed by a Regional Director, who is elected by the Regional Committee. The Board must approve such appointments, although as of 2004, it had never overruled the preference of a regional committee. The exact role of the board in the process has been a subject of debate, Sony VPCYA26EC Batterybut the practical effect has always been small.[60] Since 1999, Regional Directors serve for a once-renewable five-year term.[61]

Each Regional Committee of the WHO consists of all the Health Department heads, in all the governments of the countries that constitute the Region. Aside from electing the Regional Director, Sony VPCYB15JC Batterythe Regional Committee is also in charge of setting the guidelines for the implementation, within the region, of the health and other policies adopted by the World Health Assembly. The Regional Committee also serves as a progress review board for the actions of WHO within the Region.

The Regional Director is effectively the head of WHO for his or her Region. Sony VGN-SR39XN/S BatteryThe RD manages and/or supervises a staff of health and other experts at the regional offices and in specialized centres. The RD is also the direct supervising authority—concomitantly with the WHO Director-General—of all the heads of WHO country offices, known as WHO Representatives, within the Region.

The head of the organization is the Director-General, Sony VGN-SR29VN/S Batteryappointed by the World Health Assembly.[59] The current Director-General is Margaret Chan, who was appointed on 9 November 2006.[69] On 18 January 2012, Chan was nominated by the WHO's Executive Board for a second term. If confirmed by the World Health Assembly in May 2012, Dr Chan will remain Director-General until the end of June 2017.[70] Sony VGN-SR29XN/S Battery

WHO employs 8,500 people in 147 countries.[71] In support of the principle of a tobacco-free work environment the WHO does not recruit cigarette smokers.[72] The organization has previously instigated the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2003.[73]

The WHO operates "Goodwill Ambassadors",Sony VGN-SR31M/S Battery

members of the arts, sport or other fields of public life aimed at drawing attention to WHO's initaitves and projects. There are currently five Goodwill Ambassadors (Jet Li, Nancy Brinker, Peng Liyuan, Yohei Sasakawa and the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra) and a further ambassador associated with a partnership project (Craig David).[74] Sony VGN-SR19VN Battery

 The World Health Organization operates 147 country offices in all its regions.[75] It also operates several liaison offices, including those with the European Union, United Nations and a single office covering the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. It also operates the International Agency for Research on Cancer in Lyons, Sony VGN-SR19XN Battery

France, and the WHO Centre for Health Development in Kobe, Japan.[76] Additional offices include those in Pristina; the West Bank and Gaza; the US–Mexican Border Field Office in El Paso; the Office of the Caribbean Program Coordination in Barbados; and Northern Micronesia office.[77] There will generally be one WHO country office in the capital, occasionally accompanied by satellite-offices in the provinces or sub-regions of the country in question. Sony VGN-SR21M/S Battery

The country office is headed by a WHO Representative (WR). As of 2010, the only WHO Representative outside Europe to be a national of that country was for the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ("Libya"); all other staff were international. Those in the Region for the Americas, they are referred to as PAHO/WHO Representatives. Sony VGN-SR3CW/B Battery

In Europe, WHO Representatives also serve as Head of Country Office, and are nationals with the exception of Serbia; there are also Heads of Country Office in Albania, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Uzbekistan.[77] The WR is an internationally experienced physician or other health professional, Sony VGN-SR3S1 Batterynot a national of that country, who holds diplomatic rank and is due privileges and immunities similar to those of an Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary. The WR is member of the UN system country team which is coordinated by the UN System Resident Coordinator.

The country office consists of the WR, Sony VGN-SR41M/P Batteryand several health and other experts, both foreign and local, as well as the necessary support staff.[75] The main functions of WHO country offices include being the primary adviser of that country's government in matters of health and pharmaceutical policies.[78]

International liaison offices serve largely the same purpose as country offices, Sony VGN-SR41M/S Battery but generally on a smaller scale. These are often found in countries that want WHO presence and cooperation, but do not have the major health system flaws that require the presence of a full-blown country office. Liaison offices are headed by a liaison officer, who is a national from that particular country, and place without diplomatic immunity. Sony VGN-SR41M/W Battery

The WHO is financed by contributions from member states and outside donors. As of 2012, the largest annual assessed contributions from member states came from the United States ($110 million), Japan ($58 million), Germany ($37 million), United Kingdom ($31 million) and France ($31 million).[79] The combined 2012–2013 budget has proposed a total expenditure of $3,959 million, Sony VGN-SR49VN/H Batteryof which $944 million (24%) will come from assessed contributions. This represented a significant fall in outlay compared to the previous 2009–2010 budget, adjusting to take account of previous underspends. Assessed contributions were kept the same. Voluntary contributions will account for $3,015 million (76%),Sony VGN-SR51B/P Battery

Sony VGN-SR51B/S Batteryof which $800 million is regarded as highly or moderately flexible funding, with the remainder tied to particular programmes or objectives.[80]

In recent years, the WHO's work has involved increasing collaboration with external bodies.[81] As of 2002, a total of 473 NGOs had some form of partnership with WHO. There were 189 partnerships with international non-governmental organization (NGO) in formal "official relations" – the rest being considered informal in character. Sony VGN-SR51B BatteryPartners include the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation[83] and the Rockefeller Foundation.[84]

In 1959, the WHO signed Agreement WHA 12–40 with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which somehave claimed prevents the WHO from independently researching the effects on human health of radiation caused by the use of nuclear power, Sony VGN-SR51MF/W Battery

for examples after nuclear disasters in Chernobyl and Fukushima.[85] The agreement states that the WHO recognises the IAEA as having responsibility for peaceful nuclear energy without prejudice to the roles of the WHO of promoting health. However, the following paragraph adds: "whenever either organization proposes to initiate a programmeSony VGN-SR51MF Batteryor activity on a subject in which the other organization has or may have a substantial interest, the first party shall consult the other with a view to adjusting the matter by mutual agreement."[86] The nature of this statement has led some pressure groups and activists to believe that the WHO is restricted in its ability to investigate events and prevent further catastrophes, Sony VGN-SR45H/B Batteryand thus believe WHO must regain what they see as "independence".[87][88][89]

In 2003, the WHO denounced the Roman Curia's health department's opposition to the use of condoms, saying: "These incorrect statements about condoms and HIV are dangerous when we are facing a global pandemic which has already killed more than 20 million people, Sony VGN-SR45H/N Batteryand currently affects at least 42 million."[90] As of 2009, the Catholic Church remains opposed to increasing the use of contraception to combat HIV/AIDS.[91] At the time, the World Health Assembly President, Guyana's Health Minister Leslie Ramsammy, condemned Pope Benedict's call, saying he was trying to "create confusion" and "impede" proven strategies in the battle against the disease.[92] Sony VGN-SR45H/P Battery

The aggressive support of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for intermittent preventive therapy of malaria which included the commissioning of a report from the Institute of Medicine triggered a memo from the former WHO malaria chief Dr. Akira Kochi.[93] Dr. Kochi wrote, “although it was less and less straightforward that the health agency should recommend IPTi, HP Pavilion dv6-1013ea Batterythe agency’s objections were met with intense and aggressive opposition from Gates-backed scientists and the foundation”.

Some of the research undertaken or supported by WHO to determine how people's lifestyles and environments are influencing whether they live in better or worse health can be controversial, as illustrated by a 2003 joint WHO/FAO report on nutrition and the prevention of chronic non-communicable disease, HP Pavilion dv6-1010ea Batterywhich recommended that sugar should form no more than 10% of a healthy diet. This report led to lobbying by the sugar industry against the recommendation, to which the WHO/FAO responded by including in the report the statement "The Consultation recognized that a population goal for free sugars of less than 10% of total energy is controversial", but also stood by its recommendation based upon its own analysis of scientific studies.[95][96] HP Pavilion dv6-1005ea BatteryIn 2007, the WHO organized work on pandemic influenza vaccine development through clinical trials in collaboration with many experts. A pandemic involving the H1N1 influenza virus was declared by Director-General Margaret Chan in April 2009.

By the post-pandemic period critics claimed the WHO had exaggerated the danger, HP Pavilion dv6-1025ef Batteryspreading "fear and confusion" rather than "immediate information".[97] Industry experts countered that the 2009 pandemic had led to "unprecedented collaboration between global health authorities, scientists and manufacturers, resulting in the most comprehensive pandemic response ever undertaken, HP Pavilion dv6-1108ca Batterywith a number of vaccines approved for use three months after the pandemic declaration. This response was only possible because of the extensive preparations undertaken in during the last decade."[98]

Health is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being. In humans, it is the general condition of a person's mind,   HP Pavilion dv6-2010sa Batterybody and spirit, usually meaning to be free from illness, injury or pain (as in “good health” or “healthy”).[1] The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in its broader sense in 1946 as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."[2][3] Although this definition has been subject to controversy,   HP Pavilion dv6t Batteryin particular as having a lack of operational value and the problem created by use of the word "complete", it remains the most enduring.[4][5] Classification systems such as the WHO Family of International Classifications, including the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD),   HP Pavilion dv6t-1000 Batteryare commonly used to define and measure the components of health.

The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well-being, together sometimes referred to as the “health triangle”.[6][7] The WHO's 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion furthered that health is not just a state,   HP Pavilion dv6t-1100 Batterybut also "a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."[8]

Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote good health in humans are delivered by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences.   HP Pavilion dv6z Battery The term "healthy" is also widely used in the context of many types of non-living organizations and their impacts for the benefit of humans, such as in the sense of healthy communities, healthy cities or healthy environments. In addition to health care interventions and a person's surroundings, a number of other factors are known to influence the health status of individuals, HP Pavilion dv6z-1000 Battery including their background, lifestyle, and economic and social conditions; these are referred to as "determinants of health".

Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of great importance on health status and quality of life. It is increasingly recognized that health is maintained and improved not only through the advancement and application of health science,   HP Pavilion dv6-1148ca Battery

but also through the efforts and intelligent lifestyle choices of the individual and society. According to the World Health Organization, the main determinants of health include the social and economic environment, the physical environment, and the person's individual characteristics and behaviors.[9]More specifically, HP Pavilion dv6-1210SA Batterykey factors that have been found to influence whether people are healthy or unhealthy include:[9][10][11]

Donald Henderson as part of the CDC's smallpox eradication team in 1966.

An increasing number of studies and reports from different organizations and contexts examine the linkages between health and different factors,   HP Pavilion dv6-1215SA Batteryincluding lifestyles, environments, health care organization, and health policy – such as the 1974 Lalonde report from Canada;[11] the Alameda County Study in California;[12] and the series of World Health Reports of the World Health Organization, which focuses on global health issues including access to health care and improving public health outcomes,   HP Pavilion dv6-1120EA Battery

especially in developing countries.[13]

The concept of the "health field", as distinct from medical care, emerged from the Lalonde report from Canada. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individual's health. These are:[11]Lifestyle: the aggregation of personal decisions (i.e. over which the individual has control) that can be said to contribute to, or cause, illness or death;   HP Pavilion dv6-1120SA BatteryEnvironmental: all matters related to health external to the human body, and over which the individual has little or no control;

Biomedical: all aspects of health, physical and mental, developed within the human body as influenced by genetic make-up.Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with functional health,   HP Pavilion dv6-1140EA Batterydata from the Alameda County Study suggested that people can improve their health via exercise, enough sleep, maintaining a healthy body weight, limiting alcohol use, and avoiding smoking.[14] The ability to adapt and to self manage have been suggested as core components of human health.[15]

The environment is often cited as an important factor influencing the health status of individuals.   HP Pavilion dv6-1210EA BatteryThis includes characteristics of the natural environment, the built environment, and the social environment. Factors such as clean water and air, adequate housing, and safe communities and roads all have been found to contribute to good health, especially the health of infants and children.[9][16]   HP Pavilion dv6-1216SA Battery

Some studies have shown that a lack of neighborhood recreational spaces including natural environment leads to lower levels of personal satisfaction and higher levels of obesity, linked to lower overall health and well being.[17] This suggests the positive health benefits of natural space in urban neighborhoods should be taken into account in public policy and land use.   HP Pavilion dv6-1330SA Battery

Genetics, or inherited traits from parents, also play a role in determining the health status of individuals and populations. This can encompass both the predisposition to certain diseases and health conditions, as well as the habits and behaviors individuals develop through the lifestyle of their families. For example,   HP Pavilion dv6-2110EA Batterygenetics may play a role in the manner in which people cope with stress, either mental, emotional or physical. (One difficulty in this is the debate over the relative strengths of genetics and other factors; interactions between genetics and environment may be of particular importance.)

Achieving and maintaining health is an ongoing process, HP Pavilion dv6-2114A Batteryshaped by both the evolution of health care knowledge and practices, as well as personal strategies and organized interventions for staying healthy.Health science is the branch of science focused on health. There are two main approaches to health science: the study and research of the body and health-related issues to understand how humans (and animals) function;   HP Pavilion dv6-2112SA Batteryand the application of that knowledge to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases and other physical and mental impairments. The science builds on many sub fields, including biology, biochemistry, physics, epidemiology, pharmacology, medical sociology, and others. Applied health sciences endeavor to better understand and improve human health through applications in areas such as health education,   HP Pavilion dv5-1008ca Battery biomedical engineering, biotechnology and public health.

Organized interventions to improve health based on the principles and procedures developed through the health sciences are delivered among practitioners trained in medicine, nursing, nutrition, pharmacy, social work, Sony VPCF117FJ Batterypsychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy and other health care professions. Clinical practitioners focus mainly on the health of individuals, while public health practitioners consider the overall health of communities and populations. Workplace wellness programs are increasingly adopted by companies for their value in improving the health and well-being of their employees, Sony VPCF117HG/BI Batteryas are school health services to improve the health and well-being of children.

Public health has been described as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, Sony VPCF118FJ Batterycommunities and individuals."[18] It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a pandemic). Public health has many sub-fields, but typically includes the interdisciplinary categories of epidemiology, Sony VPCF119FC Batterybiostatistics and health services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, and occupational health, are also important areas of public health.

The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors, Sony VPCF119FJ Batterycommunities, and (in aspects relevant to human health) environments. Its aim is preventing from happening or re-occurring health problems by implementing educational programs, developing policies, administering services, and conducting research.[19] In many cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an outbreak. Sony VPCF11AFJ BatteryVaccination programs and distribution of condoms to prevent the spread of communicable diseases are examples of common preventive public health measures, as are educational campaigns to promote vaccination and the use of condoms (including overcoming resistance to such).

Public health also takes various actions to limit the health disparities between different areas of the country and, Sony VPCF11AGJ Batteryin some cases, the continent or world. One issue is the access of individuals and communities to health care, in terms of financial, geographical or sociocultural constraints in access to and use of services.[citation needed] Applications of the public health system include areas of maternal and child health, health services administration, emergency response, and prevention and control of infectious and chronic diseases. Sony VPCF11AHJ Battery

The great positive impact of public health programs is widely acknowledged. Due in part to the policies and actions developed through public health, the 20th century registered a decrease of the mortality rates in infants and children and a continual increase in life expectancy in most parts of the world. Sony VPCF11JFX/B BatteryFor example, it is estimated that the life expectancy has increased for Americans by thirty years since 1900,[20] and worldwide by six years since 1990.[21]

Personal health depends partially on the active, passive, and assisted cues people observe and adopt about their own health. These include personal actions for preventing or minimizing the effects of a disease, Sony VPCF11M1E Battery usually a chronic condition, through integrative care. They also include personal hygiene practices to prevent infection and illness, such as bathing and washing hands with soap; brushing and flossing teeth; storing, preparing and handling food safely; and many others. The information gleaned from personal observations of daily living – such as about sleep patterns, exercise behavior, Sony VPCF11M1E/H Batterynutritional intake, and environmental features – may be used to inform personal decisions and actions (e.g., "I feel tired in the morning so I am going to try sleeping on a different pillow"), as well as clinical decisions and treatment plans (e.g., a patient who notices his or her shoes are tighter than usual may be having exacerbation of left-sided heart failure, Sony VPCF11S1E Batteryand may require diuretic medication to reduce fluid overload).[22]

Personal health also depends partially on the social structure of a person's life. The maintenance of strong social relationships, volunteering, and other social activities have been linked to positive mental health and even increased longevity. Sony VPCF11Z1E BatteryOne American study among seniors over age 70 found that frequent volunteering was associated with reduced risk of dying compared with older persons who did not volunteer, regardless of physical health status.[23] Another study from Singapore reported that volunteering retirees had significantly better cognitive performance scores, Sony VPCF11ZHJ Batteryfewer depressive symptoms, and better mental well-being and life satisfaction than non-volunteering retirees.[24]

Prolonged psychological stress may negatively impact health, and has been cited as a factor in cognitive impairment with aging, depressive illness, and expression of disease.[25] Stress management is the application of methods to either reduce stress or increase tolerance to stress. Sony VPCF11C4E/B BatteryRelaxation techniques are physical methods used to relieve stress. Psychological methods include cognitive therapy, meditation, and positive thinking which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant skills, such as problem solving and time management skills, reduces uncertainty and builds confidence, which also reduces the reaction to stress-causing situations where those skills are applicable. Sony VPCF11C5E Battery

A vaccine controversy is a dispute over the morality, ethics, effectiveness, or safety of vaccinations. Medical and scientific evidence surrounding vaccinations demonstrate that the benefits of preventing suffering and death from infectious diseases far outweigh rare adverse effects of immunization. Sony VPCF11D4E Battery

However, since vaccination began in the late 18th century, opponents have claimed that vaccines do not work, that they are or may be dangerous, that individuals should rely on personal hygiene instead, or that mandatory vaccinations violate individual rights or religious principles.[3] These arguments have succeeded in reducing vaccination rates in certain communities, Sony VPCF11M1E/H Batteryleading to increased outbreaks of preventable, and sometimes fatal, childhood illnesses.[4]

Vaccines may cause side effects, and the success of immunization programs depends on public confidence in their safety. Sony VPCF11S1E/B BatteryConcerns about immunization safety often follow a pattern: some investigators suggest that a medical condition is an adverse effect of vaccination; a premature announcement is made of the alleged adverse effect; the initial study is not reproduced by other groups; and finally, it takes several years to regain public confidence in the vaccine.[1] Sony VPCF115FG/B Battery

One of the first documented "ideas" of vaccinations was in 1721 when Reverend Cotton Mather introduced inoculation to Boston, Massachusetts during the 1721 smallpox epidemic.[5] Most had religious objections to variolation, but Mather was able to convince Dr. Zabdiel Boylston to experiment with inoculation. Sony VPCF2 BatteryBoylston first experimented on his 6-year-old son, his slave, and his slave's son; each subject contracted the disease and was sick for several days, until the sickness vanished and they were "no longer gravely ill".[5] Boylston went on to vaccinate thousands of Massachusetts residents with the result being many places named for him in gratitude. Sony VPCF21Z1E BatteryReligious arguments against inoculation were advanced even before the work of Edward Jenner; for example, in a 1722 sermon entitled "The Dangerous and Sinful Practice of Inoculation" the English theologian Rev. Edmund Massey argued that diseases are sent by God to punish sin and that any attempt to prevent smallpox via inoculation is a "diabolical operation".[6] Sony VPCF22J1E BatterySome anti-vaccinationists still base their stance against vaccination with reference to their religious beliefs.[7]

After Jenner's work, vaccination became widespread in the United Kingdom in the early 19th century.[8] Variolation, which had preceded vaccination, was banned in 1840 because of its greater risks. Sony VPCF22L1E BatteryPublic policy and successive Vaccination Acts first encouraged vaccination and then made it mandatory for all infants in 1853, with the highest penalty for refusal being a prison sentence. This was a significant change in the relationship between the British state and its citizens, Sony VPCF22M1E Batteryand there was a public backlash. After an 1867 law extended the requirement age to 14 years, its opponents focused concern on infringement of individual freedom, and eventually an 1898 law allowed for conscientious objection to compulsory vaccination.[3]

In the 19th century, Sony VPCF22S1E Batterythe city of Leicester in the UK achieved a high level of isolation of smallpox cases and great reduction in spread compared to other areas. The mainstay of Leicester's approach to conquering smallpox was to decline vaccination and put their public funds into sanitary improvements.[9] Bigg's account of the public health procedures in Leicester, presented as evidence to the Royal Commission, Sony VPCF22S8E Batteryrefers to erysipelas, an infection of the superficial tissues which was a complication of any surgical procedure.

In the US, President Thomas Jefferson took a close interest in vaccination, alongside Dr. Waterhouse, chief physician at Boston. Jefferson encouraged the development of ways to transport vaccine material through the Southern states, Sony VPCF23M1E Batterywhich included measures to avoid damage by heat, a leading cause of ineffective batches. Smallpox outbreaks were contained by the latter half of the 19th century, a development widely attributed to vaccination of a large portion of the population. Vaccination rates fell after this decline in smallpox cases, Sony VPCF23Q1E Batteryand the disease again became epidemic in late 19th century (see Smallpox).[10]1904 cartoon opposing the mandatory vaccination law in Brazil. "The Congress", depicted as a Roman Caesar, threatens "the People", in rags, with a sharp object and shackles.Anti-vaccination activity increased again in the US in the late 19th century. After a visit to New York in 1879 by William Tebb, Sony VPCF231S1E Batterya prominent British anti-vaccinationist, the Anti-Vaccination Society of America was founded. The New England Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League was formed in 1882, and the Anti-Vaccination League of New York City in 1885.

John Pitcairn, the wealthy founder of the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company (now PPG Industries) emerged as a major financier and leader of the American anti-vaccination movement. Sony VPCF23S1E BatteryOn March 5, 1907, in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, he delivered an address to the Committee on Public Health and Sanitation of the Pennsylvania General Assembly criticizing vaccination.[11] He later sponsored the National Anti-Vaccination Conference, which, held in Philadelphia on October, Sony VPCF24M1E Battery1908, led to the creation of The Anti-Vaccination League of America. When the League was organized later that month, Pitcairn was chosen to be its first president.[12] On December 1, 1911, he was appointed by Pennsylvania Governor John K. Tener to the Pennsylvania State Vaccination Commission, and subsequently authored a detailed report strongly opposing the Commission's conclusions. Sony VPCF11S1E BatteryHe continued to be a staunch opponent of vaccination until his death in 1916.

In November 1904, in response to years of inadequate sanitation and disease, followed by a poorly explained public health campaign led by the renowned Brazilian public health official Oswaldo Cruz, Sony VPCF11C4E/B Batterycitizens and military cadets in Rio de Janeiro arose in a Revolta da Vacina or Vaccine Revolt. Riots broke out on the day a vaccination law took effect; vaccination symbolized the most feared and most tangible aspect of a public health plan that included other features such as urban renewal that many had opposed for years.[13] Sony VPCF11Z1E/BI Battery

In the early 19th century, the anti-vaccination movement drew members from across a wide range of society; more recently, it has been reduced to a predominantly middle-class phenomenon.[14] Arguments against vaccines in the 21st century are often similar to those of 19th-century anti-vaccinationists.[3]

20th century events include the 1982 broadcast of "DPT: Sony VPCF12E1E/H BatteryVaccine Roulette" sparking debate over the DPT vaccine,[15] and the 1998 publication of an academic article (later discredited) which sparked the MMR vaccine controversy.

Mass vaccination helped eradicate smallpox, which once killed as many as one in seven children in Europe.[16] Vaccination has almost eradicated polio. Sony VPCF12F4E/H BatteryAs a more modest example, incidence of invasive disease with Haemophilus influenzae, a major cause of bacterial meningitis and other serious disease in children, has decreased by over 99% in the US since the introduction of a vaccine in 1988.[18] Fully vaccinating all US children born in a given year from birth to adolescence saves an estimated 33,000 lives and prevents an estimated 14 million infections.[19] Sony VPCF12M1E/H BatteryThe neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (October 2011)

This article is missing information about scientific rebuttals to fringe claims. This concern has been noted on the talk page where whether or not to include such information may be discussed. Sony VPCF13E4E BatterySome vaccine critics claim that there have never been any public health benefits from vaccination.[20][21] These critics argue that reductions in communicable disease prevalence, morbidity and mortality attributed to vaccines are actually the result of several other factors:Improvements in sanitation,[21] Sony VPCF13E8E Batterywater quality,[21] hygiene,[citation needed], adequate food[21]

Intertwined with these factors is the assertion that many vaccine-preventable diseases were actually in decline prior to the introduction of vaccination.[21] The general medical consensus, however, Sony VPCF13J0E/H Batteryis that such claims are misconceptions meant to imply that vaccination is unnecessary.[22]

Other critics argue that immunity given by vaccines is only temporary and requires boosters, whereas those who survive the disease become permanently immune.[3] As discussed below, the philosophies of some alternative medicine practitioners are incompatible with the idea that vaccines are effective.[23] Sony VPCF1318E/H BatteryVaccination critics argue that for diseases like diphtheria the extra risk to older or weaker adults may outweigh the benefit of lowering the mortality rate among the general population.[24]

Lack of complete vaccine coverage increases the risk of disease for the entire population, including those who have been vaccinated, Sony VPCF13M1E/B Battery

because it reduces herd immunity. For example, measles vaccine targets children between the ages of 9 and 12 months, and the short window between the disappearance of maternal antibody (before which the vaccine often fails to seroconvert) and natural infection means that vaccinated children frequently are still vulnerable. Sony VPCF11C4E/B Battery

Herd immunity lessens this vulnerability, if all the children are vaccinated. Increasing herd immunity during an outbreak or threatened outbreak is perhaps the most widely accepted justification for mass vaccination. Mass vaccination also helps to increase coverage rapidly, thus obtaining herd immunity, when a new vaccine is introduced.[25] Sony VPCF13Z8E Battery

Commonly-used vaccines are a cost-effective and preventive way of promoting health, compared to the treatment of acute or chronic disease. In the US during the year 2001, routine childhood immunizations against seven diseases were estimated to save over $40 billion per birth-year cohort in overall social costs including $10 billion in direct health costs, Sony VPCF13Z8E/BI Batteryand the societal benefit-cost ratio for these vaccinations was estimated to be 16.5.[26]

[edit]Events following reductions in vaccination

In several countries, reductions in the use of some vaccines were followed by increases in the diseases' morbidity and mortality. Sony VPCF12S1E/B Battery

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, continued high levels of vaccine coverage are necessary to prevent resurgence of diseases which have been nearly eliminated.[29]

An anti-vaccination campaign motivated by religious objections, by concerns about effectiveness, and by concerns about individual rights, Sony VPCF12Z1E/BI Batteryled to the vaccination rate in Stockholm dropping to just over 40%, compared to about 90% elsewhere in Sweden. A major smallpox epidemic then started in 1873. It led to a rise in vaccine uptake and an end of the epidemic.[30]

In a 1974 report ascribing 36 reactions to whooping cough (pertussis) vaccine, Sony VPCF13M1E/H Batterya prominent public-health academic claimed that the vaccine was only marginally effective and questioned whether its benefits outweigh its risks, and extended television and press coverage caused a scare. Vaccine uptake in the UK decreased from 81% to 31% and pertussis epidemics followed, leading to deaths of some children. Sony VPCF13V5002B Battery

Mainstream medical opinion continued to support the effectiveness and safety of the vaccine; public confidence was restored after the publication of a national reassessment of vaccine efficacy. Vaccine uptake then increased to levels above 90% and disease incidence declined dramatically.[27] Sony VPCF21Z1E/BI Battery

In the vaccination moratorium period that occurred when Sweden suspended vaccination against whooping cough (pertussis) from 1979 to 1996, 60% of the country's children contracted the potentially fatal disease before the age of ten years; close medical monitoring kept the death rate from whooping cough at about one per year. Sony VPCF24Q1E BatteryPertussis continues to be a major health problem in developing countries, where mass vaccination is not practiced; the World Health Organization estimates it caused 294,000 deaths in 2002.[31]

An outbreak at a religious community and school in the Netherlands illustrates the effect of measles in an unvaccinated population. Sony VPCF23QIE Battery The population in the several provinces affected had a high level of immunization with the exception of one of the religious denominations who traditionally do not accept vaccination. The three measles-related deaths and 68 hospitalizations that occurred among 2961 cases in the Netherlands demonstrate that measles can be severe and may result in death even in industrialized countries. Sony VPCY21S1E Battery

As a result of the MMR vaccine controversy vaccination compliance dropped sharply in the United Kingdom after 1996.[33] From late 1999 until the summer of 2000, there was a measles outbreak in North Dublin, Ireland. At the time, the national immunization level had fallen below 80%,Sony VPCYA17GH/R Batteryand in part of North Dublin the level was around 60%. There were more than 100 hospital admissions from over 300 cases. Three children died and several more were gravely ill, some requiring mechanical ventilation to recover.[34]

In the early first decade of the 21st century, Sony VPCCW2S8E/W Batteryconservative religious leaders in northern Nigeria, suspicious of Western medicine, advised their followers not to have their children vaccinated with oral polio vaccine. The boycott was endorsed by the governor of Kano State, and immunization was suspended for several months. Subsequently, Sony VPCCW2Z1E/B Batterypolio reappeared in a dozen formerly polio-free neighbors of Nigeria, and genetic tests showed the virus was the same one that originated in northern Nigeria: Nigeria had become a net exporter of polio virus to its African neighbors. People in the northern states were also reported to be wary of other vaccinations, Sony VPCY11S1E Batteryand Nigeria reported over 20,000 measles cases and nearly 600 deaths from measles from January through March 2005.[35] In 2006 Nigeria accounted for over half of all new polio cases worldwide.[36] Outbreaks continued thereafter; for example, at least 200 children died in a late-2007 measles outbreak in Borno State.[37] Sony VPCY11S1E/S Battery

A 2005 measles outbreak in the US state of Indiana was attributed to parents who had refused to have their children vaccinated.[38] Most cases of pediatric tetanus in the US occur in children whose parents objected to their vaccination.[39]

Few deny the vast improvements vaccination has made to public health; Sony VPCW1 Battery

a more common concern is their safety.[40] All vaccines may cause side effects, and immunization safety is a real concern. Unlike most other medical interventions, vaccines are given to healthy people, and people are far less willing to tolerate vaccines' adverse effects than adverse effects of other treatments. Sony VPCW1E8R/BU Battery

As the success of immunization programs increases and the incidence of disease decreases, public attention shifts away from the risks of disease to the risk of vaccination,[1] and it becomes challenging for health authorities to preserve public support for vaccination programs.[41]

Concerns about immunization safety often follow a pattern. Sony VPCY11AGJ Battery

First, some investigators suggest that a medical condition of increasing prevalence or unknown cause is an adverse effect of vaccination. The initial study, and subsequent studies by the same group, have inadequate methodology, typically a poorly controlled or uncontrolled case series. A premature announcement is made of the alleged adverse effect, Sony VPCY11AHJ Batteryresonating with individuals suffering the condition, and underestimating the potential harm to those whom the vaccine could protect. The initial study is not reproduced by other groups. Finally, it takes several years to regain public confidence in the vaccine.[1] Adverse effects ascribed to vaccines typically have an unknown origin, Sony VPCY11AVJ Battery an increasing incidence, some biological plausibility, occurrences close to the time of vaccination, and dreaded outcomes.[42]

Controversies in this area revolve around the question of whether the risks of perceived adverse events following immunization outweigh the benefits of preventing adverse effects of common diseases. Sony VPCY11M1E Battery

There is scientific evidence that in rare cases immunizations can cause adverse events, such as oral polio vaccine causing paralysis. Current scientific evidence does not support the hypothesis of causation for more-common disorders such as autism.[1][43]

Vaccine overload is the notion that giving many vaccines at once may overwhelm or weaken a child's immature immune system and lead to adverse effects. Sony VPCY11S1E Battery

Although the scientific evidence strongly contradicts this idea,[45] some parents of autistic children firmly believe that vaccine overload causes autism.[46] The resulting controversy has caused many parents to delay or avoid immunizing their children.[44] Such parental misperceptions are major obstacles towards immunization of children.[47] Sony VPCY11V9E Battery

The idea of vaccine overload is flawed for several reasons.[45] Vaccines do not overwhelm the immune system; conservative estimates predict that the immune system can respond to thousands of viruses simultaneously.[45] Despite the increase in the number of vaccines over recent decades, Sony VPCY11V9E/S Batteryimprovements in vaccine design have reduced the immunologic load from vaccines, such that the total number of immunological components in the fourteen vaccines administered to US children in 2009 is less than 10% of what it was in the seven vaccines given in 1980.[45] Vaccines constitute only a tiny fraction of the pathogens naturally encountered by a child in a typical year[45] Sony VPCY219FJ/S Batteryand common childhood conditions such as fevers and middle ear infections pose a much greater challenge to the immune system than vaccines do.[48] Second, studies have shown that vaccinations, and even multiple concurrent vaccinations, do not weaken the immune system[45] or compromise overall immunity.[49] Finally, Sony VPCY21AFJ Batterythere is no evidence of an immune-system role in autism.[45] The lack of evidence supporting the vaccine overload hypothesis, combined with these findings directly contradicting it, have led to the conclusion that currently recommended vaccine programs do not "overload" or weaken the immune system.[1][50][51]

As any experiment based on withholding vaccines from children would be unethical, Sony VPCY21AGJ Batteryand because results of any other trial would likely be confounded by differences in health care seeking behaviours of under-vaccinated children, no study directly comparing vaccinated and unvaccinated children for rates of autism has been done. However, the concept of vaccine overload is biologically implausible, Sony VPCY21AHJ Batteryvaccinated and unvaccinated children have the same immune response to non-vaccine related infections, and autism is not an immune-mediated disease, so claims that vaccines could cause it by overloading the immune system goes against current knowledge of the pathogenesis of autism. As such, the idea that vaccines cause autism has been effectively dismissed by the weight of current evidence.[45] Sony VPCY21AVJ BatteryA 2011 journal article described the vaccine-autism connection as "the most damaging medical hoax of the last 100 years".[52]

In 1999, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) asked vaccine makers to remove the organomercury compound thiomersal (spelled "thimerosal" in the US) from vaccines as quickly as possible, Sony VPCY21S1E/L Batteryand thiomersal has been phased out of US and European vaccines, except for some preparations of influenza vaccine.[53] The CDC and the AAP followed the precautionary principle, which assumes that there is no harm in exercising caution even if it later turns out to be unwarranted, but their 1999 action sparked confusion and controversy Sony VPCY21S1E/P Batterythat has diverted attention and resources away from efforts to determine the causes of autism.[53] Since 2000, the thiomersal in child vaccines has been alleged to contribute to autism, and thousands of parents in the United States have pursued legal compensation from a federal fund.[54] A 2004 Institute of Medicine (IOM) Sony VPCY21S1E/SI Battery committee favored rejecting any causal relationship between thiomersal-containing vaccines and autism.[55] Autism incidence rates increased steadily even after thiomersal was removed from childhood vaccines.[45] Currently there is no accepted scientific evidence that exposure to thiomersal is a factor in causing autism.[56]

In the UK, Sony VPCCW1E8R/WU Batterythe MMR vaccine was the subject of controversy after publication in The Lancet of a 1998 paper by Andrew Wakefield and others, reporting a study of 12 children mostly with autism spectrum disorders with onset soon after administration of the vaccine.[57] During a 1998 press conference, Wakefield suggested that giving children the vaccines in three separate doses would be safer than a single vaccination. Sony VPCCW1S1E Battery

This suggestion was not supported by the paper, and several subsequent peer-reviewed studies have failed to show any association between the vaccine and autism.[58] It later emerged that Wakefield had received funding from litigants against vaccine manufacturers and that Wakefield had not informed colleagues or medical authorities of his conflict of interest; Sony VPCCW1S1R Batteryhad this been known, publication in The Lancet would not have taken place in the way that it did.[60] Wakefield has been heavily criticized on scientific grounds and for triggering a decline in vaccination rates[61] (vaccination rates in the UK dropped to 80% in the years following the study), Sony VPCCW1S1T Batteryas well as on ethical grounds for the way the research was conducted.[63] In 2004 the MMR-and-autism interpretation of the paper was formally retracted by 10 of Wakefield's 12 co-authors,[64] and in 2010 The Lancet's editors fully retracted the paper.[65]

The CDC,[66] the IOM of the National Academy of Sciences, Sony VPCCW1S1T/R Batteryand the UK National Health Service[67] have all concluded that there is no evidence of a link between the MMR vaccine and autism. A systematic review by the Cochrane Library concluded that there is no credible link between the MMR vaccine and autism, that MMR has prevented diseases that still carry a heavy burden of death and complications, Sony VPCCW1S1T/W Batterythat the lack of confidence in MMR has damaged public health, and that design and reporting of safety outcomes in MMR vaccine studies are largely inadequate.[2]

In 2009, The Sunday Times reported that Wakefield had manipulated patient data and misreported results in his 1998 paper, Sony VPCCW1Z4E Batterycreating the appearance of a link with autism.[68] A 2011 article in the British Medical Journal described how the data in the study had been falsified by Wakefield so it would arrive at a predetermined conclusion.[69] An accompanying editorial in the same journal described Wakefield's work as an "elaborate fraud" which led to lower vaccination rates, Sony VPCCW12EN/BU Battery putting hundreds of thousands of children at risk and diverting energy and money away from research into the true cause of autism.[70]A special court convened in the United States to review claims under the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program ruled on 12 February 2009 that parents of autistic children are not entitled to compensation in their contentionHP Pavilion dv6-3111sa Batterythat certain vaccines caused autism in their children.[71]There is evidence that schizophrenia is associated with prenatal exposure to rubella, influenza, and toxoplasmosis infection. For example, one study found a sevenfold increased risk of schizophrenia when mothers were exposed to influenza in the first trimester of gestation. HP Pavilion dv6-3048sa BatteryThis may have public health implications, as strategies for preventing infection include vaccination, antibiotics, and simple hygiene.[72] Based on studies in animal models, theoretical concerns have been raised about a possible link between schizophrenia and maternal immune response activated by virus antigens; a 2009 review concludedHP Pavilion dv6-3032sa Batterythat there was insufficient evidence to recommend routine use of trivalent influenza vaccine during the first trimester of pregnancy, but that the vaccine was still recommended outside the first trimester and in special circumstances such as pandemics or in women with certain other conditions.[73] The CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, HP Pavilion dv6-3046sa Batterythe American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, and the American Academy of Family Physicians all recommend routine flu shots for pregnant women, for several reasons:[74]

Their risk for serious influenza-related medical complications during the last two trimesters;

Their greater rates for flu-related hospitalizations compared to nonpregnant women; HP Pavilion dv6-3056sa BatteryThe possible transfer of maternal anti-influenza antibodies to children, protecting the children from the flu; and

Several studies that found no harm to pregnant women or their children from the vaccinations.

Despite this recommendation, only 16% of healthy pregnant US women surveyed in 2005 had been vaccinated against the flu.[74] HP Pavilion dv6-3068ea Battery

Aluminium compounds are used as immunologic adjuvants to increase the effectiveness of many vaccines.[75] The quantities of aluminium ingested in this way are much smaller than the quantities ingested from other sources such as infant formula.[76] In some cases these compounds have been associated with redness, HP Pavilion dv6-3112sa Batteryitching, and low-grade fever,[75] but its use in vaccines has not been associated with serious adverse events.[77] In some cases aluminum-containing vaccines are associated with macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF), localized microscopic lesions containing aluminium salts that persist up to 8 years. However, HP Pavilion dv6-3116sa Batteryrecent case-controlled studies have found no specific clinical symptoms in individuals with biopsies showing MMF, and there is no evidence that aluminium-containing vaccines are a serious health risk or justify changes to immunization practice.[77]

Other safety concerns about vaccines have been published on the Internet, HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa Batteryin informal meetings, in books, and at symposia. These include hypotheses that vaccination can cause sudden infant death syndrome, epileptic seizures, allergies, multiple sclerosis, and autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes, as well as hypotheses that vaccinations can transmit bovine spongiform encephalopathy, HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa Battery

Hepatitis C virus, and HIV. These hypotheses have been investigated, with the conclusion that currently-used vaccines meet high safety standards, and that criticism of vaccine safety in the popular press are not justified.[51]

Compulsory vaccination policies have provoked opposition at various times from people who say that governments should not infringe on the freedom of an individual to choose medications, HP Pavilion dv6-3123sa Batteryeven if the choice increases the risk of disease to themselves and others.[3][78] If a vaccination program successfully reduces the disease threat, it may reduce the perceived risk of disease enough so that an individual's optimal strategy is to refuse vaccination at coverage levels below those optimal for the community. HP Pavilion dv6-3298ea Battery

Exempting some people from mandatory vaccination results in a free rider problem, in which a few individuals gain the advantage of herd immunity without paying the cost; too many exemptions may cause loss of herd immunity, substantially increasing risks even to vaccinated individuals.[80] HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa Battery

Vaccination has been opposed on religious grounds ever since it was introduced, even when vaccination is not compulsory. Some Christian opponents argued, when vaccination was first becoming widespread, that if God had decreed that someone should die of smallpox, it would be a sin to thwart God's will via vaccination. HP Pavilion dv6-3180ea Battery[6] Religious opposition continues to the present day, on various grounds, raising ethical difficulties when the number of unvaccinated children threatens harm to the entire population.[80] Many governments allow parents to opt out of their children's otherwise-mandatory vaccinations for religious reasons; some parents falsely claim religious beliefs to get vaccination exemptions.[81] HP Pavilion dv6-3185sa BatteryThe cell culture media of some viral vaccines, and the virus of the rubella vaccine, are derived from tissues taken from therapeutic abortions performed in the 1960s, leading to moral questions. For example, the principle of double effect, originated by Thomas Aquinas, holds that actions with both good and bad consequences are morally acceptable in specific circumstances, HP Pavilion dv6-3180sa Batteryand the question is how this principle applies to vaccination.[82] The Vatican Curia has expressed concern about the rubella vaccine's embryonic cell origin, saying Catholics have "…a grave responsibility to use alternative vaccines and to make a conscientious objection with regard to those which have moral problems."[83] The Vatican concluded that until an alternative becomes available it is acceptable for Catholics to use the existing vaccine, HP Pavilion dv6-1132sa Batterywriting, "This is an unjust alternative choice, which must be eliminated as soon as possible."[83]

Many forms of alternative medicine are based on philosophies that oppose vaccination and have practitioners who voice their opposition. These include anthroposophy, some elements of the chiropractic community, non-medically trained homoeopaths, HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa Batteryand naturopaths.[23] The reasons for this negative vaccination view are complicated and rest, at least in part, on the early philosophies which shape the foundation of these groups.[23]

Historically chiropractic strongly opposed vaccination based on its belief that all diseases were traceable to causes in the spine, HP Pavilion dv6-3103sa Batteryand therefore could not be affected by vaccines; Daniel D. Palmer, the founder of chiropractic, wrote, "It is the very height of absurdity to strive to 'protect' any person from smallpox or any other malady by inoculating them with a filthy animal poison."[84] Vaccination remains controversial within the profession.[85] Although most chiropractic writings on vaccination focus on its negative aspects,[84] HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa Batteryantivaccination sentiment is espoused by what appears to be a minority of chiropractors.[85] The American Chiropractic Association and the International Chiropractic Association support individual exemptions to compulsory vaccination laws; a 1995 survey of US chiropractors found that about one third believed there was no scientific proof that immunization prevents disease. HP Pavilion dv6-6b57sa BatteryWhile the Canadian Chiropractic Association supports vaccination,[84] a survey in Alberta in 2002 found that 25% of chiropractors advised patients for, and 27% advised against, vaccinations for patients or their children.[86]

Although most chiropractic colleges try to teach about vaccination responsibly, several have faculty who seem to stress negative views. HP Pavilion dv6-6156ea Battery

A survey of a 1999–2000 cross section of students of Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College, which does not formally teach antivaccination views, reported that fourth-year students opposed vaccination more strongly than first-years, with 29.4% of fourth-years opposing vaccination.[87]

Several surveys have shown that some practitioners of homeopathy, HP Pavilion G6-1004SA Batteryparticularly homeopaths without any medical training, advise patients against vaccination.[88] For example, a survey of registered homeopaths in Austria found that only 28% considered immunization to be an important preventive measure, and 83% of homeopaths surveyed in Sydney, Australia did not recommend vaccination.[23] Many practitioners of naturopathy also oppose vaccination.[23] HP Pavilion G6-1007SA Battery

Homeopathic vaccines are recognized ineffective due to their lack of immune system stimulation and dangerous if they take the place of effective treatments.[89]

Critics have accused the vaccine industry of misrepresenting the safety and effectiveness of vaccines, covering up and suppressing information, HP Pavilion G6-1058SA Battery and influencing health policy decisions for financial gain.[3] Conversely, many groups profit by promoting the controversiality of vaccines, such as lawyers who receive fees often totalling in the millions of dollars, expert witnesses paid to provide testimony and to speak at conferences, and practitioners of alternative medicine offering expensive medications, HP Pavilion G6-1061SA Batterysupplements, and procedures such as chelation therapy and hyperbaric oxygen therapy.[90]

In the late 20th century, vaccines were a product with low profit margins,[91] and the number of companies involved in vaccine manufacture declined. In addition to low profits and liability risks, manufacturers complained about low prices paid for vaccines by the CDC and other US government agencies. HP Pavilion G6-1207SA Battery[92] In the early 21st century, the vaccine market greatly improved with the approval of the vaccine Prevnar, along with a small number of other highly-priced blockbuster vaccines such as Gardasil and Pediarix that each provided sales revenues of over $1 billion in 2008.[91]

The US Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP) was created to provide a federal no-fault system for compensating vaccine-related injuries or death. HP Pavilion G6-1224SA Battery

It is funded by a 75 cent excise tax on vaccines sold in the country and was established after a scare in the 1980s over the DPT vaccine: even though claims of side effects were later generally discredited, large jury awards had been given to some claimants of DPT vaccine injuries, and most DPT vaccine makers had ceased production. HP Pavilion G6-1236SA BatteryClaims against vaccine manufacturers must be heard first in the vaccine court.[54] By 2008 the fund had paid out 2,114 awards totaling $1.7 billion.[93] Thousands of cases of autism-related claims are pending before the court, and have not yet been resolved.[54] In 2008 the government conceded one case concerning a child who had a pre-existing mitochondrial disorder and whose autism-like symptoms appeared around the same time the child was vaccinated.[94] HP Pavilion G6-1255SA Battery